Abstract
Excluding students from school remains a common form of punishment despite growing critique of the practice. A disparate research base has impeded the ability to make broader assessments on the association between exclusionary discipline (i.e., suspensions and expulsions) and subsequent behavior. This article synthesizes existing empirical evidence (274 effect sizes from 40 primary studies) examining the relationship between exclusionary discipline and delinquent outcomes, including school misconduct/infractions, antisocial behavior, involvement with the justice system, and risky behaviors. This meta-analysis identifies exclusionary discipline as an important and meaningful predictor of increased delinquency. Additional examinations of potential moderators, including race/ethnicity and type of exclusion, revealed no significant differences, suggesting the harm associated with exclusions is consistent across subgroups. These findings indicate exclusionary discipline may inadvertently exacerbate rather than mollify delinquent behaviors.
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The authors thank the Editor and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. The authors also thank Robert Marx and Francis Pearman for feedback and suggestions in the early stages of project development
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J.G. participated in the study design, coordination, all stages of data collection and coding, and the statistical analysis and drafted the manuscript; S.V. participated in the study design, coordination, all stages of data collection and coding, and the statistical analysis and helped draft the manuscript; J.H.G. participated in the study design, coordination, and all stages of data collection and coding and helped draft the manuscript; B.F. participated in the study design, coordination, and all stages of data collection and coding, helped draft the manuscript, and performed the statistical analysis and interpretation of data; F.C.C. participated in the study design, coordination, and all stages of data collection and coding and helped draft the manuscript; E.H. participated in the initial stages of data collection and coding. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Appendix A. Summary and Select Characteristics of Included Studies
Appendix A. Summary and Select Characteristics of Included Studies
Study | Total # effect sizes | Direction of effect size | Publication type | Design | Maximum sample size | Exclusion type | Outcomes measured | Age | Percent white | Percent black | Percent male | # of controls |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allen and Lo (2012) | 12 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 450 | Expulsion | Gun carrying; Drug dealing; Ever hurt someone; Drug trafficking or gun carrying; Both drug trafficking and gun carrying | 16.43–17.09 | NA | 46–73.4 | 100 | 0–6 |
Amemiya (2019) | 12 | Mixed | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 729 | ISS/OSS | Defiant infractions; Minor infractions; Latent class of infractions | 13.5 | 25 | 75 | 46.8 | 0–12 |
Barnes and Motz (2018) | 3 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 8710 | Suspension/ Expulsion | Arrest | 15.46 | 0–100 | 0–100 | 45.9 | 11–12 |
Campbell (2017) | 2 | Negative | Thesis | Cross-sectional | 11,617 | OSS; Expulsion | Delinquency scale | 15.5–15.6 | 60.32–63.51 | 19.86–22.80 | 41.71–44.53 | 0 |
Christle et al. (2005) | 3 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 40 | Suspension; Expulsion | Law violation rate; # of law violations | NA | 86.24–89.51 | NA | 50.43–51.77 | 0 |
Costenbader and Markson (1998) | 4 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 620 | ISS/OSS | Involved in legal system (arrested, probation, or parole); Rule compliance/acting out | NA | 50 | 23 | 48 | 0–4 |
Cottrell (2017) | 30 | Negative | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 1960 | OSS | Non-serious delinquency; Serious delinquency | NA | 0–100 | 0–100 | NA | 6–7 |
Fabelo et al. (2011) | 5 | Negative | Report | Longitudinal | 928,940 | ISS/OSS/Expulsion | Juvenile justice contact | NA | 43 | 14 | 51 | 0 |
Forsyth et al. (2014) | 6 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 141,713 | Suspension/ Expulsion | Burglary; Criminal damage to property; Assault/battery; Arson; Rape/sexual battery; Murder | NA | 32 | 65 | 64.4 | 0 |
Fortunato et al. (2010) | 8 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 638 | Suspension | Alcohol use; Smoking; Illicit Drug use; Gambling; Smoking | NA | NA | NA | NA | 0 |
Ganao et al. (2013) | 6 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 3318 | Suspension | Alcohol use; Delinquency | 14.51 | 0–100 | 0–100 | NA | 0–12 |
Gates (1977) | 1 | Negative | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 200 | OSS | Frequency of deviant behavior (number of contacts with law enforcement during the school year) | NA | NA | NA | NA | 0 |
Gilbert (2019) | 4 | Negative | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 10,321 | Suspension/ Expulsion | Adult criminality | 34 | 67.4 | 15.3 | 49.7 | 0–2 |
Graham (2016) | 8 | Negative | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 21,690 | OSS | Court involvement | 18–24 | 0–100 | 0–100 | 57.62 | 0 |
Hanson and Voight (2014) | 8 | Negative | Report | Cross-sectional | 949 | Suspension | Delinquency; Substance use | NA | 28–31 | 6–9 | NA | 0 |
Harris (2015) | 42 | Mixed | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 1,545 | Suspension; Expulsion | Status offenses; Juvenile court referral; Violent offenses; Juvenile court contact | 10.39 | 0 | 100 | 0–100 | 0–5 |
Hemphill et al. (2012) | 5 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 961 | Suspension | Grade 8/9 antisocial behavior; Non-violent antisocial behavior | 31.1 | 65 | 4 | 50 | 0–3 |
Hemphill et al. (2013) | 1 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 1,838 | Suspension | Non-violent antisocial behavior | NA | 65 | NA | 50 | 12 |
Jaggers et al. (2016) | 3 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 507,613 | Expulsion | Violent crime LADOC contact; Incarceration; LADOC contact | 10.02 | NA | 57.2 | 51.29 | 9 |
Katsiyannis et al. (2013) | 2 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 12,114 | OSS | Violent criminal offending | 15.41 | 74 | NA | 46 | 12 |
Lockwood (1995) | 3 | Negative | Dissertation | Cross-sectional | 54 | Suspension | Social problems; Delinquent behavior; Aggressive behavior | 17.44 | 44 | 52 | 57 | 0 |
Loyola (1985) | 4 | Mixed | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 50 | ISS/OSS | Frequency of misbehavior; Severity of misbehavior | NA | 11.8 | 73.24 | 64 | 0 |
Mittleman (2018) | 3 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 2,924 | OSS/Expulsion | Arrest by age 15 | 15.5 | NA | 57 | 51 | 0–7 |
Monahan et al. (2014) | 1 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 1,354 | Suspension/ Expulsion | Arrest | 16 | 20.2 | 41.5 | 86.4 | 1 |
Morrow et al. (2019) | 1 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 292 | Suspension | Arrest in past year | 16 | NA | NA | 64.4 | 0 |
Mowen and Brent (2016) | 6 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 7,397 | Suspension | Arrest | 15.3 | 55 | 22.9 | 48.2 | 8 |
Novak (2019) | 2 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 837 | OSS | Justice system involvement; Deviant peer association | 4–18 | 26 | 56 | 50 | 12 |
Pesta (2017) | 10 | Mixed | Dissertation | Longitudinal | 4,321 | OSS/Expulsion | Delinquency; Adult crime | 21.7–21.9 | 0–100 | 0–100 | 50–52.1 | 0–12 |
Poteat et al. (2016) | 9 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 13,645 | Suspension | Juvenile justice system involvement; Alcohol; Marijuana; Weapon carriage onto school property; Truant; Cigarette smoking | NA | 73.7 | 5.3 | 49.8 | 0–3 |
Ramey (2016) | 8 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 3,274 | Suspension/Expulsion | Involvement with criminal justice system | 20.3–21.13 | 0–100 | 0–100 | NA | 0 |
Ramirez et al. (2012) | 15 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 12,402 | Suspension | Physical violence; Verbal violence; Weapon violence; violence | NA | NA | NA | 0–100 | 6 |
Rostad et al. (2019) | 6 | Mixed | Journal | Cross-sectional | 924 | Suspension/Expulsion | Sexual dating violence; Threatening dating violence; Physical dating violence | 15.35–15.48 | NA | NA | 0–100 | 6 |
Slaughter et al. (2019) | 2 | Mixed | Journal | Longitudinal | 308 | ISS; OSS | Recidivism | 14.25 | 76.9 | 11.9 | 86 | 8 |
Tyler and Bersani (2008) | 1 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 1,579 | Suspension | Number of times ran away from home | 15 | 58 | 22 | 51 | 0 |
Watts (2018) | 5 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 10,541 | OSS | Crime | 16.05–16.26 | 53 | 19–22 | 0–100 | 0–12 |
Williams (2013) | 8 | Negative | Dissertation | Cross-sectional | 20 | OSS | Count of disruptive, aggressive, or violent behaviors 1–3 weeks following discipline and 4–6 weeks following discipline | NA | 31.8–34.3 | NA | 24 | 0 |
Wilson (2016) | 4 | Negative | Dissertation | Cross-sectional | 6,504 | OSS; Expulsion | Nonviolent delinquent behavior; Violent behavior | 15.45 | 66.1 | 16.1 | 50.8 | 0 |
Wolf and Kupchik (2017) | 3 | Negative | Journal | Longitudinal | 7,171 | Suspension | Drug use; crime; Incarceration | 14.8 | NA | 22 | 48 | 0–5 |
Yoder et al. (2003) | 6 | Negative | Journal | Cross-sectional | 505 | Suspension; Expulsion | Gang membership; Gang involvement | 16.03–16.44 | 59.26–61.78 | 22.38–25.12 | 36.21–47.71 | 0 |
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Gerlinger, J., Viano, S., Gardella, J.H. et al. Exclusionary School Discipline and Delinquent Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis. J Youth Adolescence 50, 1493–1509 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01459-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01459-3
Keywords
- Exclusionary school discipline
- Delinquency
- Meta-analysis
- Suspension
- Expulsion