Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reactions of Boys and Girls to Sexual Abuse and to Sexual Encounters with Peers

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

To understand the etiology and consequences of child sexual abuse it is important to study the victims’ subjective reactions to such incidents. Because researchers have not been able to survey children about sexual abuse, not much is known about how subjective reactions are related to gender, age, age difference, and the social relationship between the offender and victim. The present study fills this gap using data gathered from a large, nationally representative sample of Finnish children ages 11 to 17 (N = 32,145). Analyses of abuse are based on a sample of 1520 children (78% girls), while analyses of peer sexual experiences are based on a sample of 3551 children (55% girls). Multivariate analyses adjusted for the use of coercion, the intimacy of the sexual experience, and other incident characteristics. It was hypothesized that, as a result of sex differences in sexuality and attitudes toward deviant behavior, girls are more sensitive than boys to age and age difference. Three findings supported the hypothesis: (1) girls were more likely than boys to have a negative reaction to sexual encounters regardless of the age difference; (2) for girls, age was negatively associated with the likelihood of a negative reaction, but age had no effect for boys; and (3) girls reacted negatively to age difference while boys did not. However, girls did not react more negatively unless the offender was at least eight years older. The results highlight the susceptibility of adolescent boys to encounters with older women. They further suggest that ignoring the role of the victim limits understanding of the vulnerability of young people to sexual abuse.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The investigation of subjective reactions to abuse is controversial, especially if the results suggest that some victims do not have negative reactions to such incidents (Dreger 2015; Rind et al. 1998). Scholars may be concerned that this kind of evidence increases tolerance for illegal and immoral behaviors and stigmatizes innocent young victims. We believe that the benefits of examining the subjective reactions outweighs the risks.

  2. Approximately 18% of the incidents were described as on-going. Most respondents (74%) who indicated that the encounter was on-going still answered the appraisal question. Those that did not were treated as missing data for the analyses of appraisals.

  3. Penetrative sex includes both vaginal and anal sex. Sexual touching includes incidents where one or both parties touched the other’s genitals (either directly or above the clothes) as well as “simulated” sexual intercourse without penetration. Other incidents are those without direct genital contact, such as exposure of the genitals or breasts by one or both parties, or a suggestion to do something sexual.

  4. As defined by the survey, peers could be as much as four years older than the reporting child, but in most cases there was an age difference of less than one year.

  5. This statistic may be biased since the 2013 survey only asked about the most recent incident. However, the pattern was also observed in the 2008 survey

  6. It is possible that there was some pressure or coercion from the offender when the respondents said they initiated it.

References

  • Baumeister, R. F., Catanese, K. R., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? Theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 242–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (2001). The social dimension of sex. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1993). The lenses of gender: transforming the debate on sexual inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, S. E., Hughes, H. M., & Luke, D. A. (2000). Heterogeneity in patterns of child sexual abuse, family functioning, and long-term adjustment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 134–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (2000). The dangerous passion: why jealousy is as necessary as love and sex. New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlin, A. S., Kemper, K., Ward, N. G., Sowell, H., Gustafson, B., & Stevens, N. (1994). The effect of differences in objective and subjective definitions of childhood physical abuse on estimates of its incidence and relationship to psychopathology. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18, 393–399.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, R. V. (1995). Situational crime prevention. Crime and Justice, 19, 91–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Condy, S. R., Templer, D. I., Brown, R., & Veaco, L. (1987). Parameters of sexual contact of boys with women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 16, 379–394.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dreger, A. (2015). Galileo’s middle finger: Heretics, activists, and one scholar’s search for justice. New York, NY: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durham, A. (2003). Young men living through and with child sexual abuse: a practitioner research study. British Journal of Social Work, 33, 309–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, B. J., & Symons, D. (1990). Sex differences in sexual fantasy: an evolutionary psychological approach. Journal of Sex Research, 27(4), 527–555.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellonen, N., & Pösö, T. (2011). Children’s experiences of completing a computer-based violence survey: ethical implications. Children and Society, 25, 470–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagerlund, M., & Ellonen, N. (2016). Children’s experiences of completing a computer-based violence survey: Finnish child victim survey revisited. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 25, 556–576.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D. (1979). Sexually victimized children. New York, NY: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D. (1987). The trauma of child sexual abuse: two models. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2, 348–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, G. J. (1991). Is lesser severity of child sexual abuse a reason more males report having liked it? Annals of Sex Research, 4, 131–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, R. C., & Downey, J. I. (1999). Internalized homophobia and gender-valued self-esteem in the psychoanalysis of gay patients. Psychoanalytic Review, 86, 325.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giedd, J. N. (2015). The amazing teen brain. Scientific American, 312(6), 33–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, S. R., & Gold, R. G. (1991). Gender differences in first sexual fantasies. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 17(3), 207–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haugaard, J. J., & Emery, R. E. (1989). Methodological issues in child sexual abuse research. Child Abuse and Neglect, 13, 89–100.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawes, Z. C., Wellings, K., & Stephenson, J. (2010). First heterosexual intercourse in the United Kingdom: a review of the literature. Journal of Sex Research, 47, 137–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helweg-Larsen, K., Nina, M. S., & Helmer, B. L. (2009). Unges trivsel År 2008 En undersøgelse med fokus på seksuelle overgreb og vold i barndom og tidlig ungdom. Denmark: University of Copenhagen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (2000). Sexual prejudice and gender: do heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men differ? Journal of Social Issues, 56, 251–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, J. A., Trussell, J., Moore, N. B., & Davidson, J. K. (2010). Virginity lost, satisfaction gained? Physiological and psychological sexual satisfaction at heterosexual debut. Journal of Sex Research, 47, 384–394.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hort, B. E., Fagot, B. I., & Leinbach, M. D. (1990). Are people’s notions of maleness more stereotypically framed than their notions of femaleness? Sex Roles, 23, 197–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knoth, R., Boyd, K., & Singer, B. (1988). Empirical tests of sexual selection theory: predictions of sex differences in onset, intensity, and time course of sexual arousal. Journal of Sex Research, 24(1), 73–89.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kreager, D. A., & Staff, J. (2009). The sexual double standard and adolescent peer acceptance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 72, 143–164.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Coping and adaptation. In W. D. Gentry (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral medicine (pp. 282–325). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leclerc, B., Carpentier, J., & Proulx, J. (2006). Strategies adopted by sexual offenders to involve children in sexual activity. Crime Prevention Studies, 19, 251–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2006). Is high sex drive associated with increased sexual attraction to both sexes? It depends on whether you are male or female. Psychological Science, 17, 46–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Long, P. J., & Jackson, J. L. (1993). Initial emotional response to childhood sexual abuse: emotion profiles of victims and relationship to later adjustment. Journal of Family Violence, 82, 167–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L. (1990). Attitudes and expectations about children with nontraditional and traditional gender roles. Sex Roles, 22, 151–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGee, R. A., Wolfe, D. A., & Wilson, S. K. (1997). Multiple maltreatment experiences and adolescent behavior problems: adolescents’ perspectives. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 131–149.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, A., & Oliver, P. (1998). Gender and the construction of consent in child-adult sexual contact: beyond gender neutrality and male monopoly. Gender and Society, 125, 554–577.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okami, P., & Shackelford, T. K. (2001). Human sex differences in sexual psychology and behavior. Annual Review of Sex Research, 12, 186–241.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osorio, A., López-del Burgo, C., Carlos, S., Ruiz-Canela, M., Delgado, M., & de Irala, J. (2012). First sexual intercourse and subsequent regret in three developing countries. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 271–278.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parkes, A., Strange, V., Wight, D., Bonell, C., Copas, A., Henderson, & Hart, G. (2011). Comparison of teenagers’ early same-sex and heterosexual behavior: UK data from the SHARE and RIPPLE studies. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 27–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rebocho, M. F., & GonÇalves, R. A. (2012). Sexual predators and prey: a comparative study of the hunting behavior of rapists and child molesters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 2770–2789.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rind, B., & Welter, M. (2014). Enjoyment and emotionally negative reactions in minor–adult versus minor–peer and adult–adult first postpubescent coitus: a secondary analysis of the Kinsey data. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43, 285–297.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., & Bauserman, R. (1998). A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 22–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudd, J. M., & Herzberger, S. D. (1999). Brother-sister incest—father-daughter incest: a comparison of characteristics and consequences. Child Abuse and Neglect, 239, 915–928.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T. (2005). Conceptualizing positive adolescent sexuality development. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 2(3), 4–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skidmore, W. C., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 685–697.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Staff, J., Whichard, C., Siennick, S. E., & Maggs, J. (2015). Early life risks, antisocial tendencies, and preteen delinquency. Criminology, 53(4), 677–701.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stoltenborgh, M., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Euser, E. M., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2011). A global perspective on child sexual abuse: meta-analysis of prevalence around the world. Child maltreatment, 16(2), 79–101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Symons, K., Vermeersch, H., & Van Houtte, M. (2014). The emotional experiences of early first intercourse: a multi-method study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 29, 533–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, S. E., & Filipas, H. H. (2005). Gender differences in social reactions to abuse disclosures, post-abuse coping, and PTSD of child sexual abuse survivors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 767–782.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasilenko, S. A., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Welsh, D. P. (2014). Is sexual behavior healthy for adolescents? A conceptual framework for research on adolescent sexual behavior and physical, mental, and social health. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2014(144), 3–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasilenko, S. A., Maas, M. K., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2015). “It felt good but weird at the same time”: emerging adults’ first experiences of six different sexual behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30, 586–606.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, K., DiLillo, D., & Scalora, M. J. (2011). The cumulative impact of sexual revictimization on emotion regulation difficulties: an examination of female inmates. Violence Against Women, 17, 1103–1118.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wekerle, C., Wolfe, D. A., Hawkins, D. L., Pittman, A., Glickman, A., & Lovald, B. E. (2001). Childhood maltreatment, posttraumatic stress symptomatology, and adolescent dating violence: considering the value of adolescent perceptions of abuse and a trauma mediational model. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 847–871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wight, D., Parkes, A., Strange, V., Allen, E., Bonell, C., & Henderson, M. (2008). The quality of young people’s heterosexual relationships: a longitudinal analysis of characteristics shaping subjective experience. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 40, 226–237.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Sarah Fonte and Jennie Noll for comments on earlier drafts of our paper. We also appreciate financial support from the Children, Youth and Families Consortium at Penn State.

Author Contributions

R.F. and J.S. conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination and drafted the manuscript; C.W. participated in the design, the writing, the literature review, and interpretation of the data; S.F. participated in the design, the writing, and the analysis of the data; N.E. participated in the collection of the data, translation of the survey, and addressed issues of coding. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

We received some support from the Children, Youth and Families Consortium at Penn State.

Data Sharing and Declaration

Data from each survey are freely available from the Finnish Social Science Data Archive (www.fsd.uta.fi). The study numbers for the surveys are as follows: FSD2406 (1988), FSD2416 (2008), and FSD2943 (2013).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology and Criminology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Richard B. Felson

  2. Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA

    Jukka Savolainen

  3. Northwestern Oklahoma State University, Alva, OK, USA

    Sarah Fry

  4. State University of New York at Albany, Albany, NY, USA

    Corey Whichard

  5. University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

    Noora Ellonen

Authors
  1. Richard B. Felson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jukka Savolainen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sarah Fry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Corey Whichard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Noora Ellonen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Richard B. Felson.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

The study is based on secondary data collected in another country. The work is original and is not submitted elsewhere. Ethical guidelines were followed.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Students were given opportunity to end survey at any time.

Additional information

Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Felson, R.B., Savolainen, J., Fry, S. et al. Reactions of Boys and Girls to Sexual Abuse and to Sexual Encounters with Peers. J Youth Adolescence 48, 1869–1882 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01111-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01111-1

Search

Navigation