Abstract
Adolescents’ online sexual experiences (e.g., pornography use, sexual chatting, sexualized social media use, and nude image exchange) provide a new context for sexual socialization. Traditionally, online sexual experiences are often aggregated averages, which neglect their complexity and fail to identify individual differences in the experience. Moreover, the lack of longitudinal research in this area has failed to determine if these experiences predict later offline sexual health and violence outcomes. An analysis of two waves of surveys completed by ethnically and socioeconomically diverse female adolescents (N = 296; 49% maltreated; aged 14–16 years) participating in a larger cross-sequential study was conducted to address these gaps. Established latent classes from the prerequisite study of online sexual experiences at Time 1 were Online Abstinent (low probability of any online sexual experiences), Online Inclusive (high probability of all online sexual experiences), Attractors (high probability of attracting attention from others), and Seekers (high probability of seeking out sexual content and interaction). Class membership uniquely predicted HIV risk, number of physically violent romantic partners, and the occurrence of sexual assault at Time 2. Although membership in risker online sexual experience classes predicted later offline risk and victimization, this was especially true for maltreated participants. These findings demonstrate the advantages of examining online sexual experiences in a way that emphasizes their complexity and individual differences in influential susceptibility.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bakk, Z., & Vermunt, J. K. (2016). Robustness of stepwise latent class modeling with continuous distal outcomes. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23, 20–31.
Barnes, J. E., Noll, J. G., Putnam, F. W., & Trickett, P. K. (2009). Sexual and physical revictimization among victims of severe childhood sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 412–420.
Bay-Cheng, L. Y. (2015). The agency line: a neoliberal metric for appraising young women’s sexuality. Sex Roles, 73, 279–291.
Bensley, L. S., Eenwyk, J. Van, & Simmons, K. W. (2000). Self-reported childhood sexual and physical abuse and adult HIV-risk behaviors and heavy drinking. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18, 151–158.
Bergman, L. R., & Trost, K. (2006). The person-oriented versus the variable-oriented approach: are they complementary, opposites, or exploring different worlds? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52, 601–632.
Bolck, A., Croon, M. A., & Hagenaars, J. A. (2004). Estimating latent structure models with categorical variables: one-step versus three-step estimators. Political Analysis, 12, 3–27.
Buhi, E. R., Klinkenberger, N., McFarlane, M., Kachur, R., Daley, E. M., Baldwin, J., & Rietmeijer, C. (2013). Evaluating the Internet as a sexually transmitted disease risk environment for teens: findings from the communication, health, and teens study. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 40, 528–533.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). HIV/AIDS surveillance report. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/statistics_surveillance_Adolescents.pdf. Accessed 19 Aug 2013.
Collins, L. M., & Lanza, S. T. (2010). Latent class and latent transition analysis: With applications in the social, behavioral, and health sciences. New York: Wiley.
Conger, R. D., Cui, M., Bryant, C. M., & Elder, Jr., G. H. (2000). Competence in early adult romantic relationships: a developmental perspective on family influences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 224–237.
Crimmins, D. M., & Seigfried-Spellar, K. C. (2014). Peer attachment, sexual experiences, and risky online behaviors as predictors of sexting behaviors among undergraduate students. Computers in Human Behavior, 32, 268–275.
DeHart, D., Dwyer, G., Seto, M. C., Moran, R., Letourneau, E., & Schwarz-Watts, D. (2017). Internet sexual solicitation of children: A proposed typology of offenders based on their chats, e-mails, and social network posts. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 23, 77–88.
de Vet, E., Gebhardt, W. A., Sinnige, J., Van Puffelen, A., Van Lettow, B., & de Wit, J. B. (2011). Implementation intentions for buying, carrying, discussing and using condoms: the role of the quality of plans. Health Education Research, 26, 443–455.
Dir, A. L., Cyders, M. A., & Coskunpinar, A. (2013). From the bar to the bed via mobile phone: a first test of the role of problematic alcohol use, sexting, and impulsivity-related traits in sexual hookups. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 1664–1670.
Dir, A.L., Riley, E.N., Cyders, M.A., & Smith, G.T. (2018). Problematic alcohol use and sexting as risk factors for sexual assault among college women. Journal of American College Health, 66, 1–8.
Donde, S. D., Ragsdale, S. K., Koss, M. P., & Zucker, A. N. (2018). If it wasn’t rape, was it sexual assault? Comparing rape and sexual assault acknowledgment in college women who have experienced rape. Violence Against Women, 24, 1718–1738.
Franz, M. R., DiLillo, D., & Gervais, S. J. (2016). Sexual objectification and sexual assault: do self-objectification and sexual assertiveness account for the link? Psychology of Violence, 6, 262–270.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206.
Halpern-Meekin, S., Manning, W. D., Giordano, P. C., & Longmore, M. A. (2013). Relationship churning, physical violence, and verbal abuse in young adult relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75, 2–12.
Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., & Turner, H. (2012). Teen dating violence: Co-occurrence with other victimizations in the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence (NatSCEV). Psychology of Violence, 2, 111–124.
Handyside, S., & Ringrose, J. (2017). Snapchat memory and youth digital sexual cultures: mediated temporality, duration and affect. Journal of Gender Studies, 26, 347–360.
Henderson, L., & Morgan, E. (2011). Sexting and sexual relationships among teens and young adults. McNair Scholars Research Journal. http://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/mcnair_journal/vol7/iss1/9
Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W. A., Shanklin, S. L., Flint, K. H., & Hawkins, J., et al. (2016). Youth risk behavior surveillance–United States, 2015. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 65, 1–174.
López-Guimerà, G., Levine, M. P., Sánchez-Carracedo, D., & Fauquet, J. (2010). Influence of mass media on body image and eating disordered attitudes and behaviors in females: a review of effects and processes. Media Psychology, 13, 387–416.
Maas, M. K., Bray, B. C., & Noll, J. C. (2018). A latent class analysis of online sexual experiences and offline sexual and substance use behaviors among female adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28, 731–747.
Maas, M.K. & Dewey, S. (2018). Internet pornography use among collegiate women: Gender attitudes, body monitoring, and sexual behavior. Sexualization, Media, and Society. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018786640
Mattebo, M., Tydén, T., Häggström-Nordin, E., Nilsson, K. W., & Larsson, M. (2016). Pornography consumption among adolescent girls in Sweden. The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care, 21, 295–302.
McKee, A. (2005). The objectification of women in mainstream pornographic videos in Australia. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 277–290.
Messman-Moore, T. L., & Brown, A. L. (2004). Child maltreatment and perceived family environment as risk factors for adult rape: is child sexual abuse the most salient experience? Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 1019–1034.
Mitchell, K. J., Finkelhor, D., Jones, L. M., & Wolak, J. (2010). Use of social networking sites in online sex crimes against minors: an examination of national incidence and means of utilization. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47, 183–190.
Morokoff, P. J., Redding, C. A., Harlow, L. L., Cho, S., Rossi, J. S., Meier, K. S., Mayer, K. H., Koblin, B., & Brown-Peterside, P. (2009). Associations of sexual victimization, depression, and sexual assertiveness with unprotected sex: a test of the multifaceted model of HIV across gender. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 14, 30–54.
Noll, J. G., Horowitz, L. A., Bonanno, G. A., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (2003). Revictimization and self-harm in females who experienced childhood sexual abuse: results from a prospective study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1452–1471.
Noll, J.G., & Shenk, C.E. (2013). Teen birth rates in sexually abused and neglected females. Pediatrics, 131, 1181–1187.
Noll, J. G., Shenk, C. E., Barnes, J. E., & Haralson, K. J. (2013). Association of maltreatment with high-risk internet behaviors and offline encounters. Pediatrics, 131, 510–517.
Noll, J. G., Shenk, C. E., Barnes, C. E., & Putnam, F. W. (2009). Childhood abuse, avatar choices, and other risk factors associated with internet initiated victimization of adolescent girls. Pediatrics, 123, 1078–1083.
O’Sullivan, L. F. (2014). Linking online sexual activities to health outcomes among teens. In E. S. Lefkowitz & S. A. Vasilenko (Eds.), New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development: Positive and negative outcomes of sexual behavior, 144 (pp. 37–51). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Patrick, M. E., & Maggs, J. L. (2009). Does drinking lead to sex? Daily alcohol–sex behaviors and expectancies among college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 472–481.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2016). Adolescents and pornography: a review of 20 years of research. The Journal of Sex Research, 53, 509–531.
Rice, E., Winetrobe, H., Holloway, I. W., Montoya, J., Plant, A., & Kordic, T. (2015). Cell phone internet access, online sexual solicitation, partner seeking, and sexual risk behavior among adolescents. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 755–763.
Ringrose, J., Harvey, L., Gill, R., & Livingstone, S. (2013). Teen girls, sexual double standards and ‘sexting’: Gendered value in digital image exchange. Feminist Theory, 14, 305–323.
Ricciardelli, R., & Adorjan, M. (2018). ‘If a girl’s photo gets sent around, that’s a way bigger deal than if a guy’s photo gets sent around’: gender, sexting, and the teenage years. Journal of Gender Studies, 1–15. Advanced online publiction.
Rothman, E. F., Adhia, A., Christensen, T. T., Paruk, J., Alder, J., & Daley, N. (2018). A pornography literacy class for youth: results of a feasibility and efficacy pilot study. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 13, 1–17.
Sales, J. M., Lang, D. L., DiClemente, R. J., Latham, T. P., Wingood, G. M., Hardin, J. W., & Rose, E. S. (2012). The mediating role of partner communication frequency on condom use among African American adolescent females participating in an HIV prevention intervention. Health Psychology, 31, 63–69.
Schneider, M., & Hirsch, J.S. (2018). Comprehensive sexuality education as a primary prevention strategy for sexual violence perpetration. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1-17. Advanced online publication.
Simon, W., & Gagnon, J. H. (1984). Sexual scripts. In R. Parker & P. Aggleton (Eds.), Culture, Society and Sexuality (pp. 31–40). New York: Routledge.
Southworth, C., Finn, J., Dawson, S., Fraser, C., & Tucker, S. (2007). Intimate partner violence, technology, and stalking. Violence Against Women, 13, 842–856. ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1177/1077801207302045.
Stonard, K. E., Bowen, E., Lawrence, T. R., & Price, S. A. (2014). The relevance of technology to the nature, prevalence and impact of adolescent dating violence and abuse: a research synthesis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19, 390–417.
Temple, J.R. & Choi, H. (2014). Longitudinal association between teen sexting and sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 134, e1287–e1292.
Tolman, D. L. (2009). Dilemmas of desire: Teenage girls talk about sexuality. Boston: Harvard University Press.
Tolman, D. L., Striepe, M. L., & Harmon, T. (2003). Gender matters: constructing a model of adolescent sexual health. Journal of Sex Research, 40, 4–12.
Trekels, J., Karsay, K., Eggermont, S., & Vandenbosch, L. (2018). How social and mass media relate to youth’s self-sexualization: Taking a cross-national perspective on rewarded appearance ideals. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 1440–1455.
Twenge, J.M., Martin, G.N., & Spitzberg, B.H. (2018). Trends in US Adolescents’ media use, 1976–2016: The rise of digital media, the decline of TV, and the (near) demise of print. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. Advanced online publication.
Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2012). Understanding sexual objectification: a comprehensive approach toward media exposure and girls’ internalization of beauty ideals, self-objectification, and body surveillance. Journal of Communication, 62, 869–887.
Van Ouytsel, J., Walrave, M., Lu, Y., Temple, J. R., & Ponnet, K. (2018). The associations between substance use, sexual behavior, deviant behaviors and adolescents’ engagement in sexting: does relationship context matter? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 2353–2370.
Vasilenko, S. A., Kugler, K. C., Butera, N. M., & Lanza, S. T. (2014). Patterns of adolescent sexual behavior predicting young adult sexually transmitted infections: a latent class analysis approach. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 705–715.
Vermunt, J. K., & Magidson, J. (2013). Latent GOLD5.0 Upgrade Manual. Belmont: Statistical Innovations Inc.
Weeks, M. R., Coman, E., Hilario, H., Li, J., & Abbott, M. (2013). Initial and sustained female condom use among low-income urban US women. Journal of Women’s Health, 22, 26–36.
Wesche, R., Lefkowitz, E.S., & Vasilenko, S.A. (2017). Latent classes of sexual behaviors: Prevalence, predictors, and consequences. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 14, 100–111.
Whittle, H., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., Beech, A., & Collings, G. (2013). A review of online grooming: characteristics and concerns. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 62–70.
Wilson, H. W., & Widom, C. S. (2011). Pathways from childhood abuse and neglect to HIV-risk sexual behavior in middle adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 236.
Yee, N., & Bailenson, J. (2007). The proteus effect: the effect of transformed self-representation on behavior. Human Communication Research, 33, 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00299.x.
Zweig, J. M., Dank, M., Yahner, J., & Lachman, P. (2013). The rate of cyber dating abuse among teens and how it relates to other forms of teen dating violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1063–1077.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Emily Schulz and Kyla Cary as well as Drs. Christine Gidycz and Heather McCauley for reading prior drafts of this manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by grants from the National Institute on Drug Abuse [T32 DA017629-06A1 and P50 DA039838] awarded to the Methodology Center at Penn State as well as [L40 DA044702 and F31 DA039603] to the lead author, Megan K. Maas. This work was also supported by grants from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [P50HD089922 and R01HD073130] awarded to coauthor, Jennie G. Noll. The data used in this manuscript came from a parent study that was funded by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [R01 HD052533] awarded to Jennie G. Noll. The interpretations of the results and views expressed by the authors are their own and do not necessarily reflect the National Institutes of Health.
Authors’ Contributions
M.K.M. conceived the current sub-study, participated in its design and statistical analytic plan, performed the statistical analyses, interpreted the data, and drafted the manuscript. B.C.B. participated in the statistical analytic plan, interpretation of the data, and contributed to editing of the manuscript. J.G.N. participated in the design and coordination of the parent study as its principle investigator. J.G.N. secured NIH funding, conducted data collection and processing, participated in the current sub-study’s design, and contributed to editing of the manuscript. All authors have given final approval of the version to be published.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This work was approved by the Institutional Review Boards at Cincinnati Children’s hospital and the Pennsylvania State University.
Informed Consent
Caregivers were enrolled to provide consent for adolescents and to report on adolescent behavior. Adolescents provided assent and completed paper and pencil questionnaires, a laboratory experiment, semi-structured guided interviews, and computer administered questionnaires regarding sensitive content including sexual activities to maximize anonymity.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Data Sharing Declaration This manuscript’s data will not be deposited.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Maas, M.K., Bray, B.C. & Noll, J.G. Online Sexual Experiences Predict Subsequent Sexual Health and Victimization Outcomes Among Female Adolescents: A Latent Class Analysis. J Youth Adolescence 48, 837–849 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00995-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00995-3