Abstract
Exposure to neighborhood violence is an important risk factor for the social and emotional development of children and youth. Previous work recognizes that violence may affect children indirectly via secondhand exposure; yet, few studies have aimed to identify and quantify these effects, especially in settings like Colombia where youth is chronically exposed to violence. To address this gap in the literature, this article implements an empirical strategy where geographically specific and time-stamped data are leveraged to identify the effect of indirect exposure to homicides on fifth grade children’s social and emotional outcomes. Sample participants (N = 5801) represent the fifth-grade population of boys and girls (50.7%) in two major urban areas in the country (Mage = 11.01, SD = 0.75). We hypothesize that the effects of exposure to neighborhood violence on children’s social and emotional skills will be consistent and negative. The findings indicate a consistent negative effect of indirect exposure to homicides on children’s emotional functioning (i.e., emotional regulation and empathy), as well as on the prevalence of avoidance behaviors. However, contrary to theoretical expectations, the results do not support effects on children’s levels of aggressive behavior, nor on the beliefs and attitudes that justify the use of aggression in interpersonal relationships. The findings are discussed in light of predictions from social cognitive models and their implications for developmentally and trauma-informed interventions for youth.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bowles, S., Gintis, H., & Osborne, M. (2001). The determinants of earnings: A behavioral approach. Journal of Economic Literature, 39(4), 1137–1176. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.39.4.1137.
Boylan, J. M., Lewis, T. T., Coe, C. L., & Ryff, C. D. (2015). Educational status, anger, and inflammation in the MIDUS national sample: Does race matter? Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49(4), 570–578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-015-9687-2.
Brodzinsky, S. (2013). Voices: Colombia’s path to peace. World Policy Journal, 30, 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0740277513494072.
Buka, S. L., Stichick, T. L., Birdthistle, I., & Earls, F. J. (2001). Youth exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks and consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71(3), 298–310. https://doi.org/10.1037//0002-9432.71.3.298.
Chaux, E., Molano, A., & Podlesky, P. (2009). Socio-economic, socio-political and socio-emotional variables explaining school bullying: a country-wide multilevel analysis. Aggressive Behavior, 35, 520–529. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20320.
Colombian Penal Law, (2000) Ley 599 de 2000. http://www.alcaldiabogota.gov.co/sisjur/normas/Norma1.jsp?i=6388.
Cooley-Strickland, M., Quille, T. J., Griffin, R. S., Stuart, E. A., Bradshaw, C. P., & Furr-Holden, D. (2001). Community violence and youth: Affect, behavior, substance use, and academics. Clinical Child and family Psychology Review, 12, 127–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0051-6.
Dodge, K., Bates, J., & Pettit, G. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250(4988), 1678–1683. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2270481.
Dodge, K.A. (2006). Translational science in action: Hostile attributional style and the developmentro of aggressive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 18(03). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579406060391.
Fernandez, M., Ibáñez, A. M., & Peña, X. (2014). Adjusting the labor supply to mitigate violent shocks: Evidence for rural Colombia. Journal of Development Studies, 50, 1135–1155. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2014.919384.
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8), 746 https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676.
Fleckman, J. M., Drury, S. S., Taylor, C. A., & Theall, K. P. (2016). Role of direct and indirect violence exposure on externalizing behavior in children. Journal of Urban Health, 93(3), 479–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-016-0052-y.
Foster, H., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2009). Toward a stress process model of children’s exposure to physical family and community violence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12(2), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0049-0.
Fowler, P. J., Tompsett, C. J., Braciszewski, J. M., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 21(01), 227 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579409000145.
Guerra, N. G., Huesmann, L. R., & Spindler, A. (2003). Community violence exposure, social cognition, and aggression among urban elementary school children. Child Development, 74(5), 1561–1576. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00623.
Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014.
Henrich, C. C., & Shahar, G. (2013). Effects of exposure to rocket attacks on adolescent distress and violence: A 4-year longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(6), 619–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.02.016.
Jones, S. M., & Bouffard, S. M. (2012). Social and emotional learning in schools. From programs to strategies. Society for Research in Child Development: Social Policy Report, 26, 3–22.
Kliever, W., Cunningham, J. N., Diehl, R., Parrish, K. A., Walker, J. M., Atiyeh, C., Neace, B., Duncan, L., Taylor, K., & Mejia, R. (2004). Violence exposure and adjustment in inner-city youth: Child and caregiver emotion regulation skill, caregiver-child relationship quality, and neighborhood cohesion as protective factor. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 477–487. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_5.
Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2016). A public health perspective on school dropout and adult outcomes: A prospective study of risk and protective factors from age 5 to 27 years. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(6), 652–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.01.014.
Lopera C., Herrera L., Greniez C., Carrasco J. M., & Marin P. A. (2013). Resultados nacionales censales Competencias ciudadanas SABER 3°, 5° y 9°, 2012. ICFES. http://www.icfes.gov.co/investigadores-posgrado/informes-de-resultados-evaluaciones-nacionales/informes-de-resultados-saber-3-5-y-9.
Masten, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000222.
Myers, W., Lloyd, K., Turanovic, J.J., & Pratt, T. C. (2018). Revisiting a criminological classic: The cycle of violence. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Published online 18 April 2018. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986218770003.
Mccoy, D. C. (2013). Early violence exposure and self-regulatory development: A bioecological systems perspective. Human Development, 56(4), 254–273. https://doi.org/10.1159/000353217.
Mccoy, D. C., Raver, C. C., & Sharkey, P. (2015a). Children’s cognitive performance and selective attention following recent community violence. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 56(1), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146514567576.
Mccoy, D. C., Roy, A. L., & Raver, C. C. (2015b). Neighborhood crime as a predictor of individual differences in emotional processing and regulation. Developmental Science, 19(1), 164–174. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12287.
Molano, A., Torrente, C., & Jones, S. M. (2015). Relative risk in context: Exposure to family and neighborhood violence within schools. Journal of Latino/Latin American Studies, 7(1), 9–32. https://doi.org/10.18085/1549-9502-7.1.9.
Mrug, S., & Windle, M. (2010). Prospective effects of violence exposure across multiple contexts on early adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(8), 953–961. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02222.x.
Nagata, J. M., Ferguson, B. J., & Ross, D. A. (2016). Research priorities for eight areas of adolescent health in low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(1), 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.03.016.
Ompad, D. C., Galea, S., Caiaffa, W. T., & Vlahov, D. (2007). Social determinants of the health of urban populations: Methodologic considerations. Journal of Urban Health, 84(S1), 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9168-4.
Ortega, D., Mejia, D., & Ortiz, K. (2015). Un análisis de la criminalidad urbana en Colombia. CAF. http://scioteca.caf.com/handle/123456789/810.
Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: an integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2.
Petrosino, A. (2013). Scared straight and other juvenile awareness programs for preventing juvenile deliquency: A systematic review. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2013.5.
Rodriguez, C., & Sanchez, F. (2012). Armed conflict exposure, human capital investments, and child labor: Evidence from Colombia. Defense and Peace Economics, 23, 161–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2011.597239.
Schipper, M., & Petermann, F. (2013). Relating empathy and emotion regulation: Do deficits in empathy trigger emotion dysregulation? Social Neuroscience, 8(1), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2012.761650.
Sharkey, P. (2010). The acute effect of local homicides on children’s cognitive performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11733–11738. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000690107.
Sharkey, P. (2018). The long reach of violence: A broader perspective on data, theory, and evidence on the prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 14-1–14-17.
Sharkey, P. T., Tirado-Strayer, N., Papachristos, A. V., & Raver, C. C. (2012). The effect of local violence on children’s attention and impulse control. American Journal of Public Health, 102(12), 2287–2293. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2012.300789.
Sharkey, P., Schwartz, A. E., Ellen, I. G., & Lacoe, J. (2014). High stakes in the classroom, high stakes on the street: The effects of community violence on student’s standardized test performance. Sociological Science, 1, 199–220. https://doi.org/10.15195/v1.a14.
Shinn, M., & Yoshikawa, H. (2008). Toward positive youth development: transforming schools and community programs. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Slaby, R. G., & Guerra, N. G. (1988). Cognitive mediators of aggression in adolescent offenders: I. Assessment. Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 580–588. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.24.4.580
Stretesky, P. B., Schuck, A., & Hogan, M. J. (2004). Space matters: An analysis of poverty, poverty clustering, and violent crime. Justice Quarterly, 21, 817–841. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820400096001.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2014). World at war: UNHCR Global Trends in 2014. http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/country/556725e69/unhcr-global-trends-2014.html.
Wilson, H. W., Stover, C. S., & Berkowitz, S. J. (2009). Research review: The relationship between childhood violence exposure and juvenile antisocial behavior: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(7), 769–779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01974.x.
Zimmerman, G. M., & Posick, C. (2016). Risk factors for and behavioral consequences of direct versus indirect exposure to violence. American Journal of Public Health, 106(1), 178.
Authors’ Contributions
A.M. and A.H. conceptualized and designed the study, conducted initial analyses, drafted, reviewed and revised the manuscript. J.C.C. managed the data, coordinated and supervised data analysis, produced preliminary reports, and critically reviewed the manuscript. A.M. had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
The data analysis phase of this study was supported by ICFES grant ## 166-2015.
Data Sharing Declaration
The data sets generated and analyzed are not publically available. However, they are available from the corresponding author on a reasonable request. Requests for access will be review and evaluated in consultation with the Ministry of Education and National Police in Colombia.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This study was approved by the IRB offices at Ministry of Education and Universidad de los Andes. We complied with ethical standards for collecting anonymous data and analyzing it without any personal identification.
Electronic supplementary material
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Molano, A., Harker, A. & Cristancho, J.C. Effects of Indirect Exposure to Homicide Events on Children’s Mental Health: Evidence from Urban Settings in Colombia. J Youth Adolescence 47, 2060–2072 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0876-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0876-8