Skip to main content

Bridging Multidimensional Models of Ethnic–Racial and Gender Identity Among Ethnically Diverse Emerging Adults

Journal of Youth and Adolescence volume 45, pages 1614–1637 (2016)Cite this article

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to integrate and validate a multidimensional model of ethnic–racial identity and gender identity borrowing constructs and measures based on social identity and gender identity theories. Participants included 662 emerging adults (M age  = 19.86 years; 75 % female) who self-identified either as Asian American, Latino/a, or White European American. We assessed the following facets separately for ethnic–racial identity and gender identity: centrality, in-group affect, in-group ties, self-perceived typicality, and felt conformity pressure. Within each identity domain (gender or ethnicity/race), the five dimensions generally indicated small-to-moderate correlations with one another. Also, correlations between domains for each dimension (e.g., gender typicality and ethnic–racial typicality) were mostly moderate in magnitude. We also noted some group variations based on participants’ ethnicity/race and gender in how strongly particular dimensions were associated with self-esteem. Finally, participants who scored positively on identity dimensions for both gender and ethnic–racial domains indicated higher self-esteem than those who scored high in only one domain or low in both domains. We recommend the application of multidimensional models to study social identities in multiple domains as they may relate to various outcomes during development.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Aberson, C. L., Healy, M., & Romero, V. (2000). Ingroup bias and self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(2), 157–173. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_04.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Addis, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003). Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. American Psychologist, 58(1), 5–14. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.5.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • AhnAllen, J. M., Suyemoto, K. L., & Carter, A. S. (2006). Relationship between physical appearance, sense of belonging and exclusion, and racial/ethnic self-identification among multiracial Japanese European Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(4), 673–686. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.4.673.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altschul, I., Oyserman, D., & Bybee, D. (2006). Racial–ethnic identity in mid-adolescence: Content and change as predictors of academic achievement. Child Development, 77, 1155–1169. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00926.x.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arciniega, G. M., Anderson, T. C., Tovar-Blank, Z., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2008). Toward a fuller conception of machismo: Development of a traditional machismo and caballerismo scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(1), 19–33. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., & McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 80–114. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.80.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155–162. doi:10.1037/h0036215.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2007). Developmental intergroup theory: Explaining and reducing children’s social stereotyping and prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 162–166. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00496.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K. A., & Hoyle, R. H. (1990). Perceived cohesion: A conceptual and empirical examination. Social Forces, 69(2), 479–504. doi:10.1093/sf/69.2.479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bratt, C. (2015). One of few or one of many: Social identification and psychological well-being among minority youth. British Journal of Social Psychology,. doi:10.1111/bjso.12105. (early view online version).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brook, A. T., Garcia, J., & Fleming, M. (2008). The effects of multiple identities on psychological well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(12), 1588–1600. doi:10.1177/0146167208324629.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B., & Lohr, M. J. (1987). Peer-group affiliation and adolescent self-esteem: An integration of ego-identity and symbolic-interaction theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 47–55. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.47.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrd, C. M. (2012). The measurement of racial/ethnic identity in children: A critical review. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(1), 3–31. doi:10.1177/0095798410397544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrd, C. M., & Chavous, T. (2011). Racial identity, school racial climate, and school intrinsic motivation among African American youth: The importance of person–context congruence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(4), 849–860. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00743.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, J. E. (2004). A three-factor model of social identity. Self and Identity, 3, 239–262. doi:10.1080/13576500444000047.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, P. L. (2006). Straddling boundaries: Identity, culture, and school. Sociology of Education, 79(4), 304–328. doi:10.1177/003804070607900402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Celious, A., & Oyserman, D. (2001). Race from the inside: An emerging heterogeneous race model. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 149–165. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chua, P., & Fujino, D. C. (1999). Negotiating new Asian American masculinities: Attitudes and gender expectations. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 7(3), 391–413. doi:10.3149/jms/0703.391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cokley, K. O. (2005). Racial(ized) identity, ethnic identity, and Afrocentric values: Conceptual and methodological challenges in understanding African American identity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(4), 517–526. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3), 170–180. doi:10.1037/a0014564.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Contrada, R. J., Ashmore, R. D., Gary, M. L., Coups, E., Egeth, J. D., Sewell, A., et al. (2000). Ethnicity-related sources of stress and their effects on well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(4), 136–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, C. R., Cooper, R. G, Jr, Azmitia, M., Chavira, G., & Gullatt, Y. (2002). Bridging multiple worlds: How African American and Latino youth in academic outreach programs navigate math pathways to college. Applied Developmental Science, 6(2), 73–87. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS0602_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, C. R., & Grotevant, H. D. (1987). Gender issues in the interface of family experience and adolescents’ friendship and dating identity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(3), 247–264. doi:10.1007/BF02139093.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, C. R., Jackson, J. F., Azmitia, M., Lopez, E. M., McLoyd, V. C., & Steinberg, L. (1998). Multiple selves, multiple worlds: Three useful strategies for research with ethnic minority youth on identity, relationships, and opportunity structures. In V. C. McLoyd & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Studying minority adolescents: Conceptual, methodological, and theoretical issues (pp. 111–125). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corby, B. C., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (2007). Gender identity and adjustment in Black, Hispanic, and White preadolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 261–266. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.261.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K. (1996). Social identification. In E. T. Higgins & W. Arie (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 777–798). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demo, D. H., & Hughes, M. (1990). Socialization and racial identity among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly,. doi:10.2307/2786741.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiDonato, M. D., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2011). The benefits and drawbacks of gender typing: How different dimensions are related to psychological adjustment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(2), 457–463. doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9620-5.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiDonato, M. D., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2013). Predictors and consequences of gender typicality: The mediating role of communality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(3), 429–436. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9955-1.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinella, L. M., Fulcher, M., & Weisgram, E. S. (2014). Sex-typed personality traits and gender identity as predictors of young adults’ career interests. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(3), 493–504. doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0234-6.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drury, K., Bukowski, W. M., Velásquez, A. M., & Stella-Lopez, L. (2013). Victimization and gender identity in single-sex and mixed-sex schools: Examining contextual variations in pressure to conform to gender norms. Sex Roles, 69(7–8), 442–454. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0118-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, D. L., Burk-Braxton, C., Swenson, L. P., Tevendale, H. D., & Hardesty, J. L. (2002). Race and gender influences on adjustment in early adolescence: Investigation of an integrative model. Child Development, 73(5), 1573–1592. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00491.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 451–463. doi:10.1037//0012-I649.37.4.45I.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Else-Quest, N., Mineo, C. C., & Higgins, A. (2013). Math and science attitudes and achievement at the intersection of gender and ethnicity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(3), 293–309. doi:10.1177/0361684313480694.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghavami, N., & Peplau, L. A. (2012). An intersectional analysis of gender and ethnic stereotypes: Testing three hypotheses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 113–127. doi:10.1177/0361684312464203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gjerde, P. F. (2014). An evaluation of ethnicity research in developmental psychology: Critiques and recommendations. Human Development, 57(4), 176–205. doi:10.1159/000362768.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109(1), 3–25. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.1.3.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grotevant, H. D., Thorbecke, W., & Meyer, M. L. (1982). An extension of Marcia’s identity status interview into the interpersonal domain. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11(1), 33–47. doi:10.1007/BF01537815.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurin, P., & Markus, H. (1989). Cognitive consequences of gender identity. In S. Skevington & D. Baker (Eds.), The social identity of women (pp. 152–172). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halim, M. L., & Ruble, D. (2010). Gender identity and stereotyping in early and middle childhood. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (pp. 495–525). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hutnik, N., & Sapru, S. (1996). The salience of ethnicity. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136(5), 661–662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jewell, J. A., & Brown, C. S. (2014). Relations among gender typicality, peer relations, and mental health during early adolescence. Social Development, 23(1), 137–156. doi:10.1111/sode.12042.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juang, L., & Syed, M. (2010). Family cultural socialization practices and ethnic identity in college-going emerging adults. Journal of Adolescence, 33(3), 347–354. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.11.008.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiang, L., Yip, T., & Fuligni, A. J. (2008). Multiple social identities and adjustment in young adults from ethnically diverse backgrounds. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(4), 643–670. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00575.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C. (2013). Gender development during childhood. In P. D. Zelazo (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 327–377). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C. (2015). Gender and social-cognitive development. In R. M. Lerner (Series Ed.), L. S. Liben & U. Muller (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (7th ed.), Vol. 2: Cognitive processes (pp. 806–853). New York: Wiley.

  • Leaper, C., & Brown, C. S. (2008). Perceived experiences with sexism among adolescent girls. Child Development, 79(3), 685–704. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01151.x.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C., Farkas, T., & Brown, C. S. (2012). Adolescent girls’ experiences and gender-related beliefs in relation to their motivation in math/science and English. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(3), 268–282. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9693-z.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C., & Valin, D. (1996). Predictors of Mexican American mothers’ and fathers’ attitudes toward gender equality. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18(3), 343–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leaper, C., & Van, S. R. (2008). Masculinity ideology, covert sexism, and perceived gender typicality in relation to young men’s academic motivation and choices in college. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(3), 139–153. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.9.3.139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levant, R. F., Rankin, T. J., Williams, C. M., Hasan, N. T., & Smalley, K. B. (2010). Evaluation of the factor structure and construct validity of scores on the male role norms Inventory—Revised (MRNI-R). Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 11(1), 25–37. doi:10.1037/a0017637.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levant, R., Richmond, K., Cook, S., House, A. T., & Aupont, M. (2007). The femininity ideology scale: Factor structure, reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, and social contextual variation. Sex Roles, 57(5–6), 373–383. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9258-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W. M., & Iwamoto, D. K. (2006). Asian American men’s gender role conflict: The role of Asian values, self-esteem, and psychological distress. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7(3), 153–164. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.7.3.153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, V. M., Botti, J. M., & Clark, L. H. (2007). From visibility to autonomy: Latinos and higher education in the US, 1965–2005. Harvard Educational Review, 77(4), 474–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159–187). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marques, J. M., Abrams, D., Paez, D., & Martinez-Taboada, C. (1998). The role of categorization and in-group norms in judgments of groups and their members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 976–988. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). Oxford: D. Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell Johnson, T., Robinson Kurpius, S. E., Dixon Rayle, A., Arredondo, P., & Tovar-Gamero, Z. G. (2005). The multidimensional inventory of Black identity: Its use with Euro-American, Latino, and Native American undergraduates. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 38(2), 92–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menon, M. (2011). Does felt gender compatibility mediate influences of self-perceived gender nonconformity on early adolescents’ psychosocial adjustment? Child Development, 82(4), 1152–1162. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01601.x.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miville, M. L., & Ferguson, A. D. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of race–ethnicity and gender in psychology. New York, NY: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8860-6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, M. S., Neal-Barnett, A., Demmings, J. L., & Stadulis, R. E. (2012). The acting White accusation, racial identity, and anxiety in African American adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 526–531. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.02.006.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okeke, N. A., Howard, L. C., Kurtz-Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J. (2009). Academic race stereotypes, academic self-concept, and racial centrality in African American youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 35(3), 366–387. doi:10.1177/0095798409333615.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Brickman, D., Bybee, D., & Celious, A. (2006). Fitting in matters: Markers of in-group belonging and academic outcomes. Psychological Science, 17, 854–861. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01794.x.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, M. M. (2012). Self-perceived gender typicality, gender-typed attributes, and gender stereotype endorsement in elementary-school-aged children. Sex Roles, 67(7–8), 422–434. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0184-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, M. M., & Bigler, R. S. (2007). Preschool children’s attention to environmental messages about groups: Social categorization and the origins of intergroup bias. Child Development, 77, 847–860. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00906.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499–514. doi:10.1016/0140-1971(92)90030-9.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. doi:10.1177/074355489272003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S. (1996). When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist, 51(9), 918–927. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.9.918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S., Cantu, C. L., & Kurtz, D. A. (1997). Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and White adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(2), 165–185. doi:10.1023/A:1024500514834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Postmes, T., & Branscombe, N. R. (2002). Influence of long-term racial environmental composition on subjective well-being in African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), 735–751. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.735.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qin, D. B. (2009). Being “good” or being “popular”: Gender and ethnic identity negotiations of Chinese immigrant adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24(1), 37–66. doi:10.1177/0743558408326912.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quintana, S. M. (1998). Children’s developmental understanding of ethnicity and race. Applied & Preventative Psychology, 7, 27–45. doi:10.1016/S0962-1849(98)80020-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivas-Drake, D., Hughes, D., & Way, N. (2008). A closer look at peer discrimination, ethnic identity, and psychological well-being among urban Chinese American sixth graders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(1), 12–21. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9227-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivas-Drake, D., Syed, M., Umaña-Taylor, A., Markstrom, C., French, S., Schwartz, S. J., & Lee, R. (2014). Feeling good, happy, and proud: A meta-analysis of positive ethnic–racial affect and adjustment. Child Development, 85(1), 77–102. doi:10.1111/cdev.12175.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, L. O., Scott, M. A., & Way, N. (2015). Racial and gender identity among Black adolescent males: An intersectionality approach. Child Development, 86(2), 407–425. doi:10.1111/cdev.12303.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romero, A. J., & Roberts, R. E. (2003). The impact of multiple dimensions of ethnic identity on discrimination and adolescents’ self-esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(11), 2288–2305. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01885.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Root, M. P. (1990). Resolving “other” status: Identity development of biracial individuals. Women & Therapy, 9(1–2), 185–205. doi:10.1300/J015v09n01_11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowley, S. J., Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J. E., & Zeisel, S. A. (2008). Racial identity, social context, and race-related social cognition in African Americans during middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1537–1546. doi:10.1037/a0013349.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowley, S. J., Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T. M., & Smith, M. A. (1998). The relationship between racial identity and self-esteem in African American college and high school students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 715–724. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.715.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (1998). Social identity theory’s self-esteem hypothesis: A review and some suggestions for clarification. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 40–62.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santos, C. E., & Updegraff, K. A. (2014). Feeling typical, looking typical: Physical appearance and ethnic identity among Mexican-origin youth. Journal of Latina/o Psychology, 2(4), 187–199. doi:10.1037/lat0000023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, E. K., Scottham, K. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2006). The status model of racial identity development in African American adolescents: Evidence of structure, trajectories, and well-Being. Child Development, 77(5), 1416–1426. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00944.x.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T. M., & Cooke, D. Y. (1998a). Racial ideology and racial centrality as predictors of African American college students’ academic performance. Journal of Black Psychology, 24(1), 8–27. doi:10.1177/00957984980241002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). Multidimensional inventory of Black identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 805. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 1079–1092. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1079.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998b). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 18–39. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. E., & Leaper, C. (2006). Self-perceived gender typicality and the peer context during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(1), 91–103. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00123.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. B., & Silva, L. (2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(1), 42–60. doi:10.1037/a0021528.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T. (1985). Gender identity and implications for concepts of masculinity and femininity. In T. B. Sonderegger (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Psychology and gender (Vol. 32, pp. 59–96). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. (1995). Masculinity and femininity: Defining the undefinable. In P. J. Kalbfleisch & M. J. Cody (Eds.), Gender, power, and communication in human relationships (pp. 105–138). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(1), 29–39. doi:10.1037/h0076857.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stirratt, M. J., Meyer, I. H., Ouellette, S. C., & Gara, M. A. (2008). Measuring identity multiplicity and intersectionality: Hierarchical classes analysis (HICLAS) of sexual, racial, and gender identities. Self and Identity, 7(1), 89–111. doi:10.1080/15298860701252203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suárez-Orozco, C., & Qin, D. B. (2006). Gendered perspectives in psychology: Immigrant origin youth. International Migration Review, 40(1), 165–198. doi:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2006.00007.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Syed, M., & Azmitia, M. (2008). A narrative approach to ethnic identity in emerging adulthood: Bringing life to the identity status model. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 1012–1027. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1012.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Syed, M., Azmitia, M., & Cooper, C. R. (2011). Identity and academic success among underrepresented ethnic minorities: An interdisciplinary review and integration. Journal of Social Issues, 67(3), 442–468. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01709.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge: CUP Archive.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review Psychology, 33, 1–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tate, C. C., Bettergarcia, J. N., & Brent, L. M. (2015). Re-assessing the role of gender-related cognitions for self-esteem: The importance of gender typicality for cisgender adults. Sex Roles, 72, 221–236. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0458-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobin, D. D., Menon, M., Menon, M., Spatta, B. C., Hodges, E. V., & Perry, D. G. (2010). The intrapsychics of gender: A model of self-socialization. Psychological Review, 117(2), 601–622. doi:10.1037/a0018936.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torres, J. B., Solberg, V. S. H., & Carlstrom, A. H. (2002). The myth of sameness among Latino men and their machismo. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72(2), 163–181. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.72.2.163.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, K. L., & Brown, C. S. (2007). The centrality of gender and ethnic identities across individuals and contexts. Social Development, 16(4), 700–719. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00403.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2004). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: Examining the role of social context. Journal of Adolescence, 27(2), 139–146. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.11.006.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., et al. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85(1), 21–39. doi:10.1111/cdev.12196.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Wong, J. J., Gonzales, N. A., & Dumka, L. E. (2012). Ethnic identity and gender as moderators of the association between discrimination and academic adjustment among Mexican-origin adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 773–786. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.11.003.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Camp, D., Barden, J., & Sloan, L. R. (2009). Predictors of black students’ race-related reasons for choosing an HBCU and intentions to engage in racial identity-relevant behaviors. Journal of Black Psychology, 36(2), 226–250. doi:10.1177/0095798409344082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, L., & Xie, D. (2010). Multidimensional gender identity and psychological adjustment in middle childhood: A study in China. Sex Roles, 62(1–2), 100–113. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9709-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yunger, J. L., Carver, P. R., & Perry, D. G. (2004). Does gender identity influence children’s psychological well-being? Developmental Psychology, 40(4), 572–582. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.572.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The research was supported by a Cota-Robles Fellowship to Antoinette Wilson and a grant from the UCSC Academic Senate Committee on Research to Campbell Leaper. We are grateful to Christy Byrd, Timea Farkas, Rachael Robnett, Wendelien VanTieghem, Alexa Paynter, Veronica Hamilton, Christine Starr, and the anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and thoughtful feedback. We also thank Doug Bonett for his statistical consultation. Findings from this study were presented at the 2014 Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence in Austin, Texas.

Author Contributions

Both authors collaborated in all aspects of the study, although AW was primarily responsible for initially conceiving the study and for conducting the statistical analyses. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Room 277 Social Sciences 2, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA

    Antoinette R. Wilson & Campbell Leaper

Authors
  1. Antoinette R. Wilson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Campbell Leaper
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Antoinette R. Wilson.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Research involving human participants

The Institutional Review Board at the authors’ university reviewed and approved the research protocol.

Informed consent

Informed consent was secured from all participants.

Appendices

Appendix 1

See Table 7.

Table 7 Factor loadings for principle components analysis with oblimin rotation for items on the gender identity measure
Full size table

Appendix 2

See Table 8.

Table 8 Factor loadings for principle components analysis with oblimin rotation for items on the racial–ethnic identity measure
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wilson, A.R., Leaper, C. Bridging Multidimensional Models of Ethnic–Racial and Gender Identity Among Ethnically Diverse Emerging Adults. J Youth Adolescence 45, 1614–1637 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0323-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0323-z

Keywords

  • Ethnic identity
  • Racial and ethnic attitudes
  • Gender identity
  • Sex role attitudes
  • Self esteem