Abstract
Exposure to violence is associated with elevated levels of sleep problems in adolescence, which contributes to poor mental and physical health and impaired academic performance. However, reasons underlying the associations between exposure to violence and sleep difficulty have not been examined. This study tested a social cognitive processing path model linking experiences of witnessing and directly experiencing community violence and sleep problems. Participants were 362 early adolescents (M age = 12.45 years, SD = 0.59; range 11–14 years; 48.9 % male; 51 % Latino/a; 34 % black) from urban communities enrolled in a middle-school-based intervention study on the east coast of the United States that was designed to reduce the negative effects of exposure to violence. All youth in the current study reported witnessing or directly experiencing community violence. Adolescents completed four school-based assessments over an 18-month period, reporting on their exposure to community violence, sleep problems, intrusive thoughts about and social constraints in talking about violence, and life events. A path model that included both victimization and witnessing violence revealed that wave 1 witnessing violence, but not victimization, was associated with elevated social constraints in talking about violence at wave 2, which was associated with elevated intrusive thoughts at wave 3, which was associated with poor sleep quality at wave 4. Prior levels of all constructs were controlled in the analysis, in addition to life events, single parent household status, children’s age and sex, intervention condition, and school. Youth exposed to violence may benefit from help in processing their experiences, thus reducing social constraints in talking about their experiences and associated intrusive thoughts. This is turn may improve sleep outcomes.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Baum, A., Cohen, L., & Hall, M. (1993). Control and intrusive memories as possible determinants of chronic stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 274–286.
Baumrind, D. (2005). Patterns of parental authority and adolescent autonomy. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 108, 61–69. doi:10.1002/cd.128.
Bennett, T. H., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (1992). Negative social reactions to victims: An overview of responses and their determinants. In L. Montada, S. H. Filipp, & M. J. Lerner (Eds.), Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood (pp. 497–518). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bentler, P. M. (1992). On the fit of models to covariances and methodology to the Bulletin. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 400–404.
Berset, M., Elfering, A., Luthy, S., Luthi, S., & Semmer, N. K. (2010). Work stressors and impaired sleep: Rumination as a mediator. Stress and Health, 27, e71–e82. doi:10.1002/smi.1337.
Borre, A., & Kliewer, W. (2014). Parental strain, mental health problems, and parenting practices: A longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 68, 93–97. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.014.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural models. Newbury Park, CA: American Book.
Buckhalt, J. A., El-Sheikh, M., Keller, P. S., & Kelly, R. J. (2009). Concurrent and longitudinal relations between children’s sleep and cognitive functioning: The moderating role of parent education. Child Development, 80, 875–892. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01303.x.
Buckhalt, J. A., & Staton, L. E. (2011). Children’s sleep, cognition, and academic performance in the context of socioeconomic status and ethnicity. In M. El-Sheikh (Ed.), Sleep and development: Familial and socio-cultural considerations (pp. 245–264). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195395754.003.0011.
Cauce, A. M., Mason, C., Gonzales, N., & Hiraga, Y. (1996). Social support during adolescence: Methodological and theoretical considerations. In K. Hurrelmann & S. F. Hamilton (Eds.), Social problems and social contexts in adolescence. Perspectives across boundaries (pp. 131–151). Hawthorne, NY: de Gruyter.
Clark, L. F. (1993). Stress and the cognitive-conversational benefits of social interaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12, 25–55. doi:10.1521/jscp.1993.12.1.25.
Curcio, G., Ferrara, M., & DeGennaro, L. (2006). Sleep loss, learning capacity and academic performance. Sleep Medicine Review, 10, 323–337. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2005.11.001.
Danielsson, N. S., Harvey, A. G., MacDonald, S., Jansson-Frojmark, M., & Linton, S. J. (2013). Sleep disturbance and depressive symptoms in adolescence: The role of catastrophic worry. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1223–1233. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9811-6.
de Bruin, E. J., Oort, F. J., Bögels, S. M., & Meijer, A. M. (2014). Efficacy of internet and group-administered cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in adolescents: A pilot study. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 12, 235–254.
Dinizulu, S. M., Grant, K. E., & McIntosh, J. M. (2014). The influence of nondisclosure on the mental health of urban African-American adolescents exposed to community violence. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 42, 208–220.
Fowler, P. J., Tompsett, C. J., Braciszewski, J. M., Jacques-Tiura, J. J., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children andadolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 227–259. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000145.
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of personal relationships. Child Development, 63, 103–115. doi:10.2307/1130905.
Garnefski, N., Legerstee, J., Kraaij, V., van den Kommer, T., & Teerds, J. (2002). Cognitive coping strategies and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A comparison between adolescents and adults. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 603–611. doi:10.1006/jado.2002.0507.
Giannopoulou, I., Smith, P., Ecker, C., Strouthos, M., Dikaiakou, A., & Yule, W. (2006). Factor structure of the Children’s Revised Impact of Event Scale (CRIES) with children exposed to earthquake. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1027–1037. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.002.
Hall, M., Buysse, D. J., Dew, M. A., Prigerson, H. G., Kupfer, D., & Reynolds, C. F. (1997). Intrusive thoughts and avoidance behaviors are associated with sleep disturbances in bereavement-related depression. Depression and Anxiety, 6, 106–112.
Henson, J. M., Derlega, V. J., Pearson, M. R., Ferrer, R., & Holmes, K. (2013). African American students’ responses to racial discrimination: How race-based rejection sensitivity and social constraints are related to psychological reactions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32, 504–529.
Horowitz, M. J. (1993). Stress-response syndromes: A review of post-traumatic stress and adjustment disorders. In J. P. Wilson & B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 49–60). New York, NY: Plenum.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118.
Kaynak, O. I., Lepore, S. J., & Kliewer, W. (2011). Social support constraints moderate the relation between community violence exposure and depressive symptoms in an urban adolescent sample. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30, 250–269. doi:10.1521/jscp.2011.30.3.250.
Kelly, R. J., & El-Sheikh, M. (2014). Reciprocal relations between children’s sleep and their adjustment over time. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1137–1147. doi:10.1037/a0034501.
Kendall, P. C., Robin, J. A., Hedtke, K. A., Suveg, C., Flannery-Schroeder, E., & Gosch, E. (2006). Considering CBT with anxious youth? Think exposures. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 12, 136–148.
Kliewer, W., Lepore, S. J., Oskin, D., & Johnson, P. D. (1998). The role of social and cognitive processes in children’s adjustment to community violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 199–209. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.1.199.
Kliewer, W., & Zaharakis, N. (2013). Community violence exposure, coping, and problematic alcohol and drug use among urban, female caregivers: A prospective study. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 361–366. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.020.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer.
Lepore, S. J. (2001). A social-cognitive processing model of emotional adjustment to cancer. In A. Baum & B. Andersen (Eds.), Psychosocial interventions for cancer (pp. 99–118). Washington, DC: APA. doi:10.1037/10402-006.
Lepore, S. J., Fernandez-Berrocal, P., Ragan, J., & Ramos, N. (2004). It’s not that bad: Social challenges to emotional disclosure enhance adjustment to stress. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping: An International Journal, 17, 341–361. doi:10.1080/10615800412331318625.
Lepore, S. J., & Kliewer, W. (2013). Violence exposure, sleep disturbance, and poor academic performance in middle school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 1179–1189. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9709-0.
Lepore, S. J., & Revenson, T. A. (2007). Social constraints on disclosure and adjustment to cancer. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 1–21. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00013.x.
Lepore, S. J., Silver, R. C., Wortman, C. B., & Wayment, H. A. (1996). Social constraints, intrusive thoughts, and depressive symptoms among bereaved mothers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 271–282. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.271.
Lepore, S. J., & Smyth, J. (Eds.). (2002). The writing cure: How expressive writing influences health and well-being. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10451-000.
Meldrum, R. C., Barnes, J. C., & Carter, H. (2013). Sleep deprivation, low self-control, and delinquency: A test of the strength model of self-control. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Retrieved from the web October 2, 2013. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-0024-4.
Mosher, C., Lepore, S. J., Wu, L., Austin, J., Valdimarsdottir, H., Rowley, S., et al. (2012). Social correlates of distress following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: Exploring the role of loneliness and cognitive processing. Journal of Health Psychology, 17, 1022–1032. doi:10.1177/1359105311432490.
Muthen, L. K., & Muthen, B. O. (2014). Mplus user’s guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthen & Muthen.
Ozer, E. J., & Weinstein, R. S. (2004). Urban adolescents’ exposure to community violence: The role of support, school safety, and social constraints in a school-based sample of boys and girls. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 463–476. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_4.
Pasipanodya, E. C., Parrish, B. P., Laurenceau, J.-P., Cohen, L. H., Siegel, S. D., Graber, E. C., et al. (2012). Social constraints on disclosure predict daily well-being incouples coping with early-stage breast cancer. Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 661–667. doi:10.1037/a0028655.
Richters, J. E., & Saltzman, W. (1990). Survey of children’s exposure to community violence: Parent report and self-report version. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.
Shaw, J. A. (2000). Children, adolescents and trauma. Psychiatric Quarterly, 71, 227–243.
Singh, G. K., & Kenney, M. K. (2013). Rising prevalence and neighborhood, social, and behavioral determinants of sleep problems in US children and adolescents, 2003–2012. Sleep Disorders. Article ID 394320. doi:10.1155/2013/394320.
Smaldone, A., Honig, J. C., & Byrne, M. W. (2007). Sleepless in America: Inadequate sleep and relationships to health and wellbeing of our nation’s children. Pediatrics, 119, S29–S37. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2089F.
Taylor, T. R., Huntley, E. D., Makambi, K., Sween, J., Adams-Campbell, L. L., Frederick, W., et al. (2012). Understanding sleep disturbances in African-American breast cancer survivors: A pilot study. Psycho-Oncology, 21, 896–902. doi:10.1002/pon.2000.
Weir, L. A., Etelson, D., & Brand, D. A. (2006). Parents’ perceptions of neighborhood safety and children’s physical activity. Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory, 43, 212–217. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.03.024.
Wolfson, A. R., & Carskadon, M. A. (1998). Sleep schedules and daytime functioning in adolescents. Child Development, 69, 875–887. doi:10.2307/1132351.
Wolfson, A. R., & Carskadon, M. A. (2003). Understanding adolescents’ sleep patterns and school performance: A critical appraisal. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 7, 491–506. doi:10.1016/S1087-0792(03)90003-7.
You, J., & Lu, Q. (2014). Social constraints and quality of life among Chinese-speaking breast cancer survivors: A mediation model. Quality of Life Research. Retrieved online 29 April 2014. doi:10.1007/s11136-014-0698-4.
Yu, C. (2002). Evaluating cutoff criteria of model fit indices for latent variable models with binary and continuous outcomes (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles.
Acknowledgments
Writing of this paper was supported by R01MH081166-01A1 awarded to Wendy Kliewer and Stephen J. Lepore. We thank the research staff, schools, teachers, and students who participated in this study.
Author contributions
W.K. and S.L. jointly conceived and designed the study, W.K. ran the analyses, W.K. and S.L. jointly interpreted the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kliewer, W., Lepore, S.J. Exposure to Violence, Social Cognitive Processing, and Sleep Problems in Urban Adolescents. J Youth Adolescence 44, 507–517 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0184-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0184-x