Skip to main content

Acculturation, Enculturation, and Symptoms of Depression in Hispanic Youth: The Roles of Gender, Hispanic Cultural Values, and Family Functioning

Journal of Youth and Adolescence volume 41, pages 1350–1365 (2012)Cite this article

Abstract

The risk for depression increases as Hispanic youth acculturate to U.S. society. This association is stronger for Hispanic girls than boys. To better understand the influence of culture and family on depressive symptoms, we tested a process-oriented model of acculturation, cultural values, and family functioning. The data came from Project RED, which included 1,922 Hispanic students (53 % girls; 86 % were 14 years old; and 84 % were U.S. born) from Southern California. We used data from 9th to 11th grade to test the influence of acculturation-related experiences on depressive symptoms over time. Multi-group structural equation analysis suggested that both family conflict and cohesion were linked with depressive symptoms. Hispanic cultural values were associated with family cohesion and conflict but the strength and direction of these relationships varied across cultural values and gender. For girls and boys, familismo and respeto were associated with higher family cohesion and lower family conflict. Moreover, gender roles were linked with higher family cohesion in girls but not in boys. These results indicate that improving family functioning will be beneficial for boys’ and girls’ psychological well-being. This may be achieved by promoting familismo and respeto for boys and girls and by promoting traditional gender roles for girls.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

References

  • Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aranda, M. P., Castaneda, I., Lee, P., & Sobel, E. (2001). Stress, social support and coping as predictors of depressive symptoms: Gender differences among Mexican Americans. Social Work Research, 25(1), 37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azmitia, M., & Brown, J. (2002). Latino immigrant parents’ beliefs about the “path of life” of their adolescent children. In J. M. Contreras, K. A. Kerns, & N. Barnett (Eds.), Latino children and families in the United States: Current research and future direction (pp. 77–105). Westpot, CT: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1983). Cognitive theory of depression: New perspectives. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabassa, L. J. (2003). Measuring acculturation: Where we are and where we need to go. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 25(2), 127–146. doi:10.1177/0739986303253626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calzada, E. J., Fernandez, Y., & Cortes, D. E. (2010). Incorporating the cultural value of respeto into a framework of latino parenting. Cultural Diversity Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(1), 77. doi:10.1037/a0016071.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cauce, A. M., & Domenech-Rodriguez, M. (2002). Latino families: Myths and realities. In J. M. Contreras, K. A. Kerns, & N. Barnett (Eds.), Latino children and families in the United States: Current research and future directions (pp. 3–25). Westpot, CT: Praeger Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Céspedes, Y. M., & Huey, S. J., Jr. (2008). Depression in latino adolescents: A cultural discrepancy perspective. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(2), 168–172. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.2.168.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, B., Alegría, M., Lin, J. Y., & Guo, J. (2009). Pathways and correlates connecting latinos’ mental health with exposure to the united states. American Journal of Public Health, 99(12), 2247–2254. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.137091.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crockett, L. J., Randall, B. A., Shen, Y., Russell, S. T., & Driscoll, A. K. (2005). Measurement equivalence of the center for epidemiological studies depression scale for Latino and Anglo adolescents: A national study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(1), 47–58. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.1.47.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuéllar, I., Arnold, B., & Gonzalez, G. (1995a). Cognitive referents of acculturation: Assessment of cultural constructs in Mexican Americans. Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 339–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuéllar, I., Arnold, B., & Maldonado, R. (1995b). Acculturation rating scale for Mexican Americans-II: A revision of the original ARSMA scale. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 17(3), 275–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C. K., & Bandalos, D. L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models (SEM). Structural Equaltion Modeling, 8(3), 430–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engel, G. L. (1980). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 137(5), 535.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fuligni, A. J., Tseng, V., & Lam, M. (1999). Attitudes toward family obligations among American adolescents with Asian, Latin American, and European backgrounds. Child Development, 70(4), 1030–1044.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gil, R. M., & Vazquez, C. I. (1996). The maria paradox. how Latinas can merge old world traditions with new world esteem. New York: Putnam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gil, A. G., Wagner, E. F., & Vega, W. A. (2000). Acculturation, familism and alcohol use among Latino adolescent males: Longitudinal relations. Journal of Community Psychology, 28(4), 443–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzales, N. A., Deardorff, J., Formoso, D., Barr, A., & Barrera, M., Jr. (2006). Family mediators of the relation between acculturation and adolescent mental health. Family Relations, 55(3), 318–330. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2006.00405.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. B. L. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology (1965), 107(1), 128–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to under parameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jöreskog, K. G. (1993). Testing structural equation models. In B. B. Kenneth & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 294–316). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, T., Cunningham, W., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Unger, J. B., Ritt-Olson, A., Soto, D., & Baezconde-Garbanati, L. (2011). Acculturation, gender, depression, and cigarette smoking among U.S. hispanic youth: The mediating role of perceived discrimination. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9633-y.

  • Loukas, A., & Prelow, H. M. (2004). Externalizing and internalizing problems in low-income Latino early adolescents: Risk, resource, and protective factors. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 24(3), 250–273. doi:10.1177/0272431604265675.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda, A. O., Estrada, D., & Firpo-Jimenez, M. (2000). Differences in family cohesion, adaptability, and environment among Latino families in dissimilar stages of acculturation. The Family Journal, 8(4), 341–350. doi:10.1177/1066480700084003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user’s guide. 6th (Edn.) Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

  • Neff, J. A., & Hoppe, S. K. (1993). Race/ethnicity, acculturation, and psychological distress: Fatalism and religiosity as cultural resources. Journal of Community Psychology, 21(1), 3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ogbu, J. U. (1994). From cultural differences to differences in cultural frame of reference. In P. M. Greenfiel & P. R. Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child development (pp. 365–391). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, D. H., Portner, J., & Bell, R. (1982). Family adaptability and cohesion evaluation scales. In D. H. Olson, H. I. McCubbin, H. L. Barnes, A. Larsen, M. Muxen, & M. Wilson (Eds.), Family inventories (pp. 5–24). St. Paul: University of Minnesota, Department of Family Social Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pérez, D. J., Fortuna, L., & Alegría, M. (2008). Prevalence and correlates of everyday discrimination among U.S. Latinos. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(4), 421–433. doi:10.1002/jcop.20221.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Hispanic Center. (2009). Between two worlds: How young Latinos come of age in America. Washington, DC.

  • Potochnick, S. R., & Perreira, K. M. (2010). Depression and anxiety among first-generation immigrant Latino youth key correlates and implications for future research. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(7), 470–477. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e33181e4c424.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1991). The use of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20(2), 149–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raffaelli, M. M. (2004). Gender socialization in Latino/a families: Results from two retrospective studies. Sex Roles, 50(5/6), 287–299. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000018886.58945.06.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivera, F. I., Guarnaccia, P. J., Mulvaney-Day, N., Lin, J. Y., Torres, M., & Alegría, M. (2008). Family cohesion and its relationship to psychological distress among Latino groups. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30(3), 357–378. doi:10.1177/0739986308318713.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E., Roberts, C. R., & Chen, Y. R. (1997). Ethnocultural differences in prevalence of adolescent depression. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25(1), 95.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D. (2002). Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30(4), 3–13.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herberg, D., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12(2), 215–234.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sabogal, F., Marín, G., Otero-Sabogal, R., & Marín, B. V. (1987). Hispanic familism and acculturation: What changes and what doesn’t? Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9(4), 397–412. doi:10.1177/07399863870094003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saluja, G., Iachan, R., Scheidt, P. C., Overpeck, M. D., Sun, W., & Giedd, J. N. (2004). Prevalence of and risk factors for depressive symptoms among young adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 158(8), 760–765.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarmiento, I. A., & Cardemil, E. V. (2009). Family functioning and depression in low-income Latino couples. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 35(4), 432–445. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.200901139.x.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237–251. doi:10.1037/a0019330.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, S., Schwartz, S. J., Prado, G., Huang, S., Pantin, H., & Szapocznik, J. (2007). A bidimensional model of acculturation for examining differences in family functioning and behavior problems in Hispanic immigrant adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 27(4), 405–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torres, J. B. (1998). Masculinity and gender roles among Puerto Rican men: Machismo on the U.S. mainland. American Orthopsychiatric Association, 68(1), 16–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Umana-Taylor, A. J., & Fine, M. A. (2001). Methodological implications of grouping latino adolescents into one collective ethnic group. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 23(4), 347–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unger, J. B. (2006). Cultural/interpersonal values and smoking in an ethnically diverse sample of Southern California adolescents. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 13(1), 55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unger, J. B., Ritt-Olson, A., Teran, L., Huang, T., Hoffman, B. R., & Palmer, P. (2002). Cultural values and substance use in a multiethnic sample of California adolescents. Addiction Research Theory, 10(3), 257–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Unger, J. B., Ritt-Olson, A., Wagner, K. D., Soto, D. W., & Baezconde-Garbanati, L. (2009). Parent-child acculturation patterns and substance use among Hispanic adolescents: A longitudinal analysis. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 30(3–4), 293–313.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). U.S. Census Bureau News: Facts for Features: Hispanic heritage month, 2010. Retrieved March 30, 2011, from http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/.

  • Valenzuela, A. A. (1993). Liberal gender role attitudes and academic achievement among mexican-origin adolescents in two Houston inner-city catholic schools. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15(3), 310–323. doi:10.1177/07399863930153002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vega, W. A., & Sribney, W. M. (2008). Latino population demographics, risk factors, and depression: A case study of the Mexican American prevalence and services survey. In T. P. Gullotta (Ed.), Depression in Latinos: Assessment, treatment, and prevention (pp. 29–52). New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Villanueva Dixon, S., Graber, J. A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2008). The roles of respect for parental authority and parenting practices in parent-child conflicto among African American, Latino, and European American Families. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(1), 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, K. D., Ritt-Olson, A., Chou, C. P., Pokhrel, P., Duan, L., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., et al. (2010). Associations between family structure, family functioning, and substance use among Hispanic/Latino adolescents. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, 24(1), 98–108. doi:10.1027/a0018497.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weersing, V., & Brent, D. A. (2006). Cognitive behavioral therapy for depression in youth. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15(4), 939.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zayas, L. H., Lester, R. J., Cabassa, L. J., & Fortuna, L. R. (2005). Why do so many Latina teens attempt suicide? A conceptual model for research. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75(2), 275–287. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.75.2.275.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (Grant # DA016310), and the University of Michigan Substance Abuse Research Center/NIDA Pre-doctoral Training Fellowship (Grant # T32DA007267).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departments of Psychology and Women’s Studies, University of Michigan Substance Abuse Research Center, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA

    Elma I. Lorenzo-Blanco

  2. University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Alhambra, CA, USA

    Jennifer B. Unger, Lourdes Baezconde-Garbanati, Anamara Ritt-Olson & Daniel Soto

Authors
  1. Elma I. Lorenzo-Blanco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer B. Unger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lourdes Baezconde-Garbanati
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Anamara Ritt-Olson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Daniel Soto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elma I. Lorenzo-Blanco.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lorenzo-Blanco, E.I., Unger, J.B., Baezconde-Garbanati, L. et al. Acculturation, Enculturation, and Symptoms of Depression in Hispanic Youth: The Roles of Gender, Hispanic Cultural Values, and Family Functioning. J Youth Adolescence 41, 1350–1365 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9774-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9774-7

Keywords

  • Acculturation
  • Enculturation
  • Hispanic youth
  • Culture
  • Family
  • Depressive symptoms