Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Relationship of Parental Control to Youth Adjustment: Do Youths’ Feelings About Their Parents Play a Role?

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recent research suggests that youths interpret parental control and that this may have implications for how control affects youths’ adjustment. In this study, we propose that youths’ feelings about being over-controlled by parents and feeling connected to parents are intermediary processes linking parental control and youths’ adjustment. We used three years of longitudinal data sampled from 1,022 Swedish youths in 7th, 8th, and 9th grade (47.3% girls; 12–17 years old, M age = 14.28 years, SD = .98) who were mainly Swedish in ethnic origin. We tested models linking parental control (i.e., rules, restriction of freedom, and coldness-rejection) to adjustment (i.e., norm-breaking, depressive symptoms, and self-esteem) through youths feeling over-controlled by and connected to parents. The overall model incorporating youths’ feelings showed that restrictions and coldness-rejection were both indirectly linked to increases in norm-breaking and depressive symptoms through increases in youths feeling over-controlled. Parental rules still independently predicted decreases in norm-breaking and in self-esteem, and coldness-rejection predicted increases in norm-breaking. In addition, some paths (e.g., feeling over-controlled to self-esteem) depended on the youths’ age, whereas others depended on their gender. These results suggest that when youths’ feelings are taken into account, all behavioral control is not the same, and the line between behavioral control and psychological control is blurred. We conclude that it is important to consider youths’ feelings of being controlled and suggest that future research focus more on exploring this idea.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. To ensure that we were not overlooking important differences between parents, we estimated separate models for mothers and fathers. There were only slight differences between the model, with only one path that was significant for fathers but not mothers. For fathers only, more connectedness was related to increases in self-esteem, Est. = .08, p < .05. We also examined family structure and found no significant differences between biological, 2-parent families, parent-stepparent families, and single-parent families.

References

  • Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revising a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., & Harmon, E. L. (2002). Violating the self: Parental psychological control of children and adolescents. In B. K. Barber (Ed.), Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects children and adolescents (pp. 15–52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., Olsen, J. E., & Shagle, S. C. (1994). Association between parental psychological control and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65, 1120–1136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., Stolz, H. E., & Olsen, J. E. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 70(4). Boston, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, S., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K. (2001). Extending research on the consequences of parenting style for Chinese Americans and European Americans. Child Development, 72, 1832–1843.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K., & Aque, C. (2009). Interpretations of parental control by Asian immigrant and European American youth. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 342–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chao, R. K., & Tseng, V. (2002). Parenting of Asians. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting. Vol. 4: Social conditions and applied parenting (2nd ed., pp. 59–93). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 53, 221–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, K. J., Conger, R. D., & Scaramella, L. V. (1997). Parents, siblings, psychological control, and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 113–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1995). Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, feelings of distress, and provocation type. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 313–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Martínez, M. L. (2007). Adolescents’ as active agents in the socialization process: Legitimacy of parental authority and obligation to obey as predictors of obedience. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 297–311.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Martínez, M. L. (2008). Individual differences in adolescents’ beliefs about the legitimacy of parental authority and their own obligation to obey: A longitudinal investigation. Child Development, 79, 1103–1118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1024–1037.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., Early, D., Frasier, K., Belansky, E., & McCarthy, K. (1997). The relation of connection, regulation, and support for autonomy to adolescents’ functioning. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 263–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., et al. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48, 90–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, G. C. (2009). Family matters: The importance of mattering to family in adolescence. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, S. S., & Quatman, T. (1988). Factors influencing age expectations for adolescent autonomy: A study of early adolescents and parents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 8, 325–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, S. S., & Rosenthal, D. A. (1991). Age expectations of behavioral autonomy in Hong Kong, Australian and American youth: The influence of family variables and adolescents’ values. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuligni, A. J., & Eccles, J. S. (1993). Perceived parent-child relationships and early adolescents’ orientation toward peers. Developmental Psychology, 29, 622–632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Almeida, D. M. (2003). Parents do matter: Trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 578–594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galambos, N. L., Leadbeater, B. J., & Barker, E. T. (2004). Gender differences in and risk factors for depression in adolescence: A 4-year longitudinal study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 16–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasebe, H., Nucci, L., & Nucci, M. S. (2004). Parental control of the personal domain and adolescent symptoms of psychopathology: A cross-national study in the United States and Japan. Child Development, 75, 815–828.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawk, S. T., Hale, W. W., III, Raaijmakers, Q. A. W., & Meeus, W. (2008). Adolescents’ perceptions of privacy invasion in reaction to parental solicitation and control. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 28, 583–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, M. R., Dornbusch, S. M., Herron, M. C., & Herting, J. R. (1997). The influence of family regulation, connection, and psychological autonomy on six measures of adolescent functioning. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 34–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huh, D., Tristan, J., Wade, E., & Stice, E. (2006). Does problem behavior elicit poor parenting? A prospective study of adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Research, 21, 185–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kakihara, F., & Tilton-Weaver, L. (2009). Adolescents’ interpretations of parental control: Differentiated by domain and types of control. Child Development, 80, 1722–1738.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2003). Parenting of adolescents: Action or reaction? In A. C. Crouter & A. Booth (Eds.), Children’s influence on family dynamics: The neglected side of family relationships (pp. 121–151). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leadbeater, B. J., Blatt, S. J., & Quinlan, D. M. (1995). Gender-linked vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms, stress, and problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 1–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (2002). Statistical analysis with missing data (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent–child interaction. In P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed., pp. 1–101). New York: Wiley.

  • Magnusson, D., Dunér, A., & Zetterblom, G. (1975). Adjustment: A longitudinal study. Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist & Wiksell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, S. K. (2001). Do I matter? Construct validation of adolescents’ perceived mattering to parents and friends. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 473–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, S. K. (2004). Relative contribution of perceived mattering to parents and friends in predicting adolescents’ psychological well-being. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 99, 591–601.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, S. K., Tilton-Weaver, L. C., & Bosdet, L. (2005). Information management: Considering adolescents’ regulation of parental knowledge. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 633–647.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCartney, K., Burchinal, M., & Bub, K. L. (2006). Best practices in quantitative methods for developmentalists. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 71(3). Boston, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: Conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Mplus users guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pomerantz, E. M., & Eaton, M. M. (2000). Developmental differences in children’s conceptions of parental control: “They love me, but they make me feel incompetent”. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, 140–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pomerantz, E. M., & Ruble, D. M. (1998). The role of maternal control in the development of sex differences in child self-evaluative factors. Child Development, 69, 458–478.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, K. N., Buchanan, C. M., & Winchell, M. E. (2003). Psychological control during early adolescence: Links to adjustment in differing parent/adolescent dyads. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 349–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rohner, R. P., & Pettengill, S. M. (1985). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection and parental control among Korean adolescents. Child Development, 56, 524–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M., & McCullough, B. C. (1981). Mattering: Inferred significance and mental health among adolescence. Research in Community & Mental Health, 2, 163–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D., & Martin, C. L. (1998). Gender development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) & W. Damon (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Socialization, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 993–1016). New York: Wiley.

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scholte, E. V. (1999). Factors predicting continued violence into young adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 3–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G., & Asquith, P. (1994). Adolescents’ conceptions of parental authority and personal autonomy. Child Development, 65, 1147–1162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G., Campione-Barr, N., & Daddis, C. (2004). Longitudinal development of family decision making: Defining healthy behavioral autonomy for middle-class African American adolescents. Child Development, 75, 1418–1434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G., & Daddis, C. (2002). Domain specific antecedents of parental psychological control and monitoring: The role of parenting beliefs and practices. Child Development, 73, 563–580.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G., Metzger, A., Gettman, D., & Campione-Barr, N. (2006). Disclosure and secrecy in adolescent–parent relationships. Child Development, 77, 201–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Smits, I., Lowet, K., & Goossens, L. (2007). The role of intrusive parenting in the relationship between peer management strategies and peer affiliation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 239–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tilton-Weaver, L., Kerr, M., Pakalniskiene, V., Tokic, A., Salihovic, S., & Stattin, H. (2009). Open up or close down: How do parental reactions affect youth information management? Journal of Adolescence. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.07.011.

  • van der Zwaluw, C. S., Scholte, R. H. J., Vermulst, A. A., Buitelaar, J. K., Verkes, R. J., & Engels, C. M. E. (2008). Parental problem drinking, parenting, and adolescent alcohol use. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 189–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, B. M., & Compas, B. E. (1990). Gender, instrumentality, and expressivity: Moderators of the relation between stress and psychological symptoms during adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 383–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker-Barnes, C. J., & Mason, C. A. (2001). Ethnic differences in the effect of parenting on gang involvement and gang delinquency: A longitudinal, hierarchical linear modeling perspective. Child Development, 72, 1814–1831.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yau, J., & Smetana, J. G. (1996). Adolescent-parent conflict among Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Child Development, 67, 1262–1275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by funding to Professors Kerr and Stattin from the Swedish Research Council, the Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research, and Riksbankens Jubileumsfond.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Developmental Research, Psychology, Örebro University, 701 82, Örebro, Sweden

    Fumiko Kakihara, Lauree Tilton-Weaver, Margaret Kerr & Håkan Stattin

Authors
  1. Fumiko Kakihara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lauree Tilton-Weaver
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Margaret Kerr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Håkan Stattin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fumiko Kakihara.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kakihara, F., Tilton-Weaver, L., Kerr, M. et al. The Relationship of Parental Control to Youth Adjustment: Do Youths’ Feelings About Their Parents Play a Role?. J Youth Adolescence 39, 1442–1456 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9479-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9479-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation