Abstract
How do different words referring to gender/sex categories reflect and/or shape our understanding of gender/sex concepts? The current study examined this issue by assessing how individuals use gender/sex terms (females, males, women, men). Participants recruited through MTurk (N = 299) completed an online survey, rating the terms on nine dimensions, completing a fill-in-the-blank task, and reporting gender essentialist beliefs. Overall, participants rated the words females/males as more biological and technical, and women/men as higher on all other dimensions (e.g., appropriate, polite, warm). Preference for females/males correlated positively with gender essentialism among women. These findings suggest that use of certain gendered terms is linked to how people conceptualize gender/sex. Future research should further explore the relation between choice of gendered terms, how language choice reflects and shapes attitudes and beliefs about gender/sex, and factors (e.g., race) that may influence this relation.
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Data Availability
The datasets for the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Notes
Note: Category headings (e.g., “Traditional Social Roles”), and labels (e.g., [WF], [MM]) were not presented in the survey itself and are only included here for the purpose of the reader. Participants saw each sentence one at a time and their corresponding multiple choice response options. The labels in brackets refer to whether the options provided were words for women [WF] or words for men [MM].
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Acknowledgements
We thank the University of Michigan Rackham Graduate School for funding this project, and Rosie Ceballo, Abby Stewart, and the Conceptual Development Lab, for their helpful feedback.
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All authors contributed to study design and data analysis. ST wrote the manuscript and SG and ZS contributed edits.
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Appendix
Appendix
Fill-in-the-Blank Task
Instructions:
Please read the following instructions. You will not be able to continue to the next page for a short time. In the following portion of the survey you will see a series of sentences, each including a blank. Please select one word to fill in the blank. This should be the word that you feel sounds best in this context. Some of the sentences might not be totally accurate and/or might express ideas that you do not agree with. Please select the word that sounds best, regardless of your personal views on the statement itself.
Traditional Social Roles Footnote 1
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Traditionally, it has been the role of ______ to care for children. [WF]
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Traditionally, it has been the role of ______ to provide financial support for the family. [MM]
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Historically, the household has been seen as the domain of _______. [WF]
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Historically, the workplace has been seen as the domain of _______. [MM]
Egalitarian Social Roles
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The participation of ______ in the workplace has increased. [WF]
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______ have taken on more child-rearing responsibility than ever before. [MM]
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More ______ are running for public office than ever before. [WF]
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______ are more in touch with their feelings than they used to be. [MM]
Biological
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______ have XX chromosomes. [WF]
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______ have XY chromosomes. [MM]
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______ are capable of giving birth. [WF]
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______ are capable of growing beards. [MM]
Formal
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It is seen as a good etiquette for ______ to remove their hats when indoors. [MM]
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It is considered good manners for ______ to sit with their legs closed. [WF]
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It is customary for ______ to wear suits for formal events. [MM]
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It is customary for ______ to wear dresses for formal events. [WF]
Medical
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Twenty percent of _______ participated in a study regarding their experience during labor. [WF]
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One hundred _______ volunteered for a study regarding prostate cancer. [MM]
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Vasectomies are an option of birth control for _______. [MM]
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It is important for _______ to make annual gynecologist appointments. [WF]
Stereotypical Behaviors
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______ like to go shopping for clothes. [WF]
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______ like to go to brunch. [WF]
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______ enjoy watching sports. [MM]
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______ do not like to ask for directions. [MM]
Stereotypical Traits
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Some people think that ______ are emotional. [WF]
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______ tend to be more confident. [MM]
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______ are perceived to be aggressive. [MM]
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______ are perceived to be nurturing. [WF]
Ratings Task
Instructions:
In the following portion of the survey you will be asked to rate a list of words on different dimensions, using a six-point scale. The according dimension will be bolded for each question.
Words: Females, Women, Girls, Gals, Ladies, Men, Males, Boys, Guys, Gentlemen
How polite is the following word?
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Not at all polite
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Somewhat impolite
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Slightly impolite
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Slightly polite
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Somewhat polite
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Very Polite
How technical is the following word?
-
Not at all technical
-
Somewhat not technical
-
Slightly not technical
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Slightly technical
-
Somewhat technical
-
Very technical
How respectful is the following word?
-
Not at all respectful.
-
Somewhat disrespectful
-
Slightly disrespectful
-
Slightly respectful
-
Somewhat respectful
-
Very respectful
How formal is the following word?
-
Not at all formal
-
Somewhat informal
-
Slightly informal
-
Slightly formal
-
Somewhat formal
-
Very formal
How casual is the following word?
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Not at all casual
-
Somewhat not casual
-
Slightly not casual
-
Slightly casual
-
Somewhat casual
-
Very casual
How appropriate is the following word?
-
Not at all appropriate
-
Somewhat inappropriate
-
Slightly inappropriate
-
Slightly appropriate
-
Somewhat appropriate
-
Very appropriate
How common is the following word?
-
Not at all common
-
Somewhat uncommon
-
Slightly uncommon
-
Slightly common
-
Somewhat common
-
Very common
How scientific is the following word?
-
Not at all scientific
-
Somewhat not scientific
-
Slightly not scientific
-
Slightly scientific
-
Somewhat scientific
-
Very scientific
How warm is the following word?
-
Not at all warm
-
Somewhat not warm
-
Slightly not warm
-
Slightly warm
-
Somewhat warm
-
Very warm
Demographics
What is your gender identity?
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Woman
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Man
-
Non-binary
-
Another gender
How do you prefer others refer to you? (for women)
-
Woman
-
Female
-
Girl
-
Gal
-
Lady
How do you prefer others refer to you? (for men)
-
Man
-
Male
-
Boy
-
Guy
-
Gentlemen
What is your racial/ethnic background?
-
White or European American
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Black or African American
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Native American or Alaska Native
-
Asian or Asian American
-
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
-
Hispanic or Latinx
-
Multi-racial (please specify) _____
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Another racial/ethnicity (please specify) _____
What is the highest level of education you have completed?
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Less than high school
-
Some high school
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High school graduate
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Some college
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Finished training other than college (e.g., vocational school)
-
Graduated from 2-year college
-
Graduated from 4-year college or university
-
Some graduate or professional school
-
Received masters, professional, or doctoral degree
How would you describe your economic resources when you were growing up?
-
Very poor, not enough to get by
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Barely had enough to get by
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Had enough to get by, but not extras
-
Had more than enough to get by
-
Well off
-
Very wealthy
How old are you?
Do you identify as a feminist?
-
Yes
-
No
-
Maybe/unsure
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Troncoso, S.C., Schudson, Z.C. & Gelman, S.A. Women Versus Females: Gender Essentialism in Everyday Language. J Psycholinguist Res 52, 975–995 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-022-09917-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-022-09917-0