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Acquisition of Stop Consonants in Mandarin-Japanese Early Bilingual Children

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Abstract

This study examines the nature of stop accuracy and substitute patterns of word-initial Japanese and Mandarin stops produced by Mandarin-Japanese bilingual children. The purpose of the study is to understand phonological development in bilinguals. The sample consists of 36 bilingual children between the ages of three and six, who simultaneously acquired Japanese and Mandarin from birth. The results were as follows: (1) most of the bilingual children were able to produce Mandarin and Japanese stops by the age of three and the accuracy of the target stops were found to develop with age; (2) the age of developing the target consonants is slightly different in the two languages; (3) substitution patterns observed in each language reveals a mixture of child-specific patterns, language specific systems and language influence as well as individual differences. These findings indicate that Mandarin-Japanese bilingual children possess a unique phonological development system, which is a monolinguallike pattern with cross-linguistic interaction. These results constitute a new body of descriptive reference materials documenting the phonological development of bilingual children for speech therapists or pathologists.

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Notes

  1. Of 36 children, 29 were the same participants as those in the Tanaka and Chen (2015)’ s study.

  2. The list of Japanese words was the same as one used in Tanaka and Chen (2015)’ s study.

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Acknowledgements

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Marry Beckman and Dr. Eun Jong Kong for providing me an opportunity to join their Paidologos project, and for sharing their research materials. I also appreciate all the children and their parents for participating in this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Applied Japanese, Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Tainan, Taiwan

    Makiko Tanaka

  2. Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan

    Li-Mei Chen

  3. Department of Counseling, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan

    Chung-Jen Hsu

Authors
  1. Makiko Tanaka
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  2. Li-Mei Chen
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  3. Chung-Jen Hsu
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Makiko Tanaka.

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The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Appendices

Appendix A: Japanese World List

IPA

English gloss

Japanese

Target stops

Vowels

ti:kappu

Tea cup

ティーカップ

/t/

/i/

ti:ʃatsu

T-shirt

Tシャツ

/t/

/i/

tiʃ:u

Tissue

ティッシュ

/t/

/i/

tebukuro

Glove

手袋

/t/

/e/

tempura

Tempura

天ぷら

/t/

/e/

tegami

Letter

手紙

/t/

/e/

tako

Octopus

たこ

/t/

/a/

tamago

Egg

卵

/t/

/a/

taŋpopo

Dandelion

たんぽぽ

/t/

/a/

tomato

Tomato

トマト

/t/

/o/

to:ɸu

Bean curd

豆腐

/t/

/o/

tora

Tiger

とら

/t/

/o/

ke:kji

Cake

ケーキ

/k/

/e/

kemuri

Smoke

煙

/k/

/e/

keʃigomu

Eraser

消しゴム

/k/

/e/

kaba

Hippo

かば

/k/

/a/

kame

Turtle

かめ

/k/

/a/

karasu

Crow

からす

/k/

/a/

kora

Koala

コアラ

/k/

/o/

kodomo

Child

子供

/k/

/o/

koppu

Cup

コップ

/k/

/o/

kuma

Bear

クマ

/k/

/u/

kuri

Chestnut

栗

/k/

/u/

kuruma

Car

車

/k/

/u/

kji:ro

Yellow

黄色

/kj/

/i/

kjimono

Kimono

着物

/kj/

/i/

kjiriŋ

Giraffe

キリン

/kj/

/i/

kjabetsu

Cabbage

キャベツ

/kj/

/a/

kjappu

Cap

キャップ

/kj/

/a/

kjarameru

Caramel

キャラメル

/kj/

/a/

kjo:dai

Sibling

兄弟

/kj/

/o/

kjo:so:

Competition

競争

/kj/

/o/

kjorokjoro

Restless eyes

きょろきょろ

/kj/

/o/

kju:

Nine

9

/kj/

/u/

kju:kju:ʃa

Ambulance

救急車

/kj/

/u/

kju:ri

Cucumber

きゅうり

/kj/

/u/

deŋkji

Electricity

電気

/d/

/e/

dekoboko

Uneven

でこぼこ

/d/

/e/

depa:to

Department store

デパート

/d/

/e/

daikoŋ

White radish

大根

/d/

/a/

daŋgo

Dumpling

団子

/d/

/a/

daruma

Tumbler

だるま

/d/

/a/

doa

Door

ドア

/d/

/o/

doŋguri

Acorn

どんぐり

/d/

/o/

do:natsu

Doughnut

ドーナツ

/d/

/o/

ge:mu

Game

ゲーム

/g/

/e/

geŋkji

Energy

元気

/g/

/e/

geta

Wooden clogs

下駄

/g/

/e/

gakko:

School

学校

/g/

/e/

garasu

Glass

ガラス

/g/

/a/

gasu

Gas

ガス

/g/

/a/

goma

Sesame

ゴマ

/g/

/o/

gomi

Garbage

ごみ

/g/

/o/

gorira

Gorilla

ゴリラ

/g/

/o/

gumi

Soft candy

グミ

/g/

/u/

guruguru

Round and round

ぐるぐる

/g/

/u/

gu:

Stone

グー

/g/

/u/

gjidzagjidza

Jag

ギザギザ

/gj/

/i/

gjiŋko:

Bank

銀行

/gj/

/i/

gjita:

Guitar

ギター

/gj/

/i/

  1. Palatalized consonants are indicated as /kj/ and /gj/. /k/ and /g/ before /i/ which are realized as palatal [kj] and [gj], respectively, are also indicated as/kj/and/gj/

Appendix B: Mandarin Word List

IPA

English gloss

Mandarin

Target stops

Vowels

pɑŋ51.pɑŋ51.thɑŋ35

Lollypop

棒棒糖

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑ51.pɑ

Father

爸爸

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑ35.hə35

Tug of war

拔河

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑn55.tɕiɑ55

Moving

搬家

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑ55.le35.u214

Ballet

芭蕾舞

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑŋ55.mɑŋ35

Helping someone

幫忙

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑn55.ma214

Zebra

斑馬

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑŋ51.tɕhio35

Baseball

棒球

/p/

/ɑ/

Bus

巴士

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑŋ214.ɕiɛ35.tɑi51

Ting shoelace

綁鞋帶

/p/

/ɑ/

Class leader

班長

/p/

/ɑ/

pɑn214.tsɨ

Board

板子

/p/

/ɑ/

pe55.pɑu55

Backpack

背包

/p/

/e/

pe51.khə35

Shell

貝殼

/p/

/e/

pe51.ɕin55

Vest

背心

/p/

/e/

pe55.tsɨ

Cup

杯子

/p/

/e/

piŋ214.kɑn55

Cookies

餅乾

/p/

/i/

pin55.kuɑn214

Hotel

賓館

/p/

/i/

pi214.tɕi51.pən214

Notebook

筆記本

/p/

/i/

pi35.khɔŋ214

Nostril

鼻孔

/p/

/i/

piŋ55.khuɑi51

Ice cube

冰塊

/p/

/i/

pin55.kuɔ214.io13.ɕi51

Board game

賓果遊戲

/p/

/i/

piŋ51.ʐən35

Patient

病人

/p/

/i/

pi214.ɕin55

Lead

筆芯

/p/

/i/

piŋ55.ɕiɑŋ55

Refrigerator

冰箱

/p/

/i/

pi35.tsɨ

Nose

鼻子

/p/

/i/

pəŋ51.pəŋ51.

thiɑu51.thiɑu51

Jumping

蹦蹦跳跳

/p/

/ə/

po55.tshɑi51

Spinach

菠菜

/p/

/o/

po55.tiɛn51.huɑ51

Making a call

撥電話

/p/

/o/

po35.fu51

Uncle

伯父

/p/

/o/

pəŋ51.khɑi55

Blooming

蹦開

/p/

/ə/

po55.lɑŋ51

Wave

波浪

/p/

/o/

po55.li35

Glass

玻璃

/p/

/o/

po35.u51.kuɑn214

Museum

博物館

/p/

/o/

po55.ɕiɑŋ55.tɕiɑu55

Peeling a banana skin

剝香蕉

/p/

/o/

po35.io35.lu51

Asphalt

柏油路

/p/

/o/

pu51.tɑi51.ɕi51

Chinese puppetry

布袋戲

/p/

/u/

pu51.tiŋ55

Pudding

布丁

/p/

/u/

pu51.uɑ35.uɑ55

Soft toy

布娃娃

/p/

/u/

phɑŋ35.piɛn55

Next to

旁邊

/ph/

/ɑ/

Clapping hands

拍拍手

/ph/

/ɑ/

phɑ51.ləŋ214

Being afraid of cold

怕冷

/ph/

/ɑ/

phɑŋ51.tsɨ

Fatty

胖子

/ph/

/ɑ/

Mr. Pang

彭先生

/ph/

/ɑ/

phɑn35.tsɨ

Plate

盤子

/ph/

/ɑ/

Climbing

爬山

/ph/

/ɑ/

phɑŋ35.ɕiɛ51

Club

螃蟹

/ph/

/ɑ/

Ling down

趴著

/ph/

/ɑ/

phe51.hə35

Coordinating

配合

/ph/

/e/

phe35.tɕhiɛn35

Losing money

賠錢

/ph/

/e/

phe35.uɔ214

Staying with me

陪我

/ph/

/e/

phiŋ55.phɑŋ55.tɕhio35

Table tennis

乒乓球

/ph/

/i/

phi35.tɑi51

Belt

皮帶

/ph/

/i/

phiŋ35.tɔŋ55

Pingtung (a county in Taiwan)

屏東

/ph/

/i/

phi51.ku51

Bottom

屁股

/ph/

/i/

phi35.tɕio214

Beer

啤酒

/ph/

/i/

phin55.miŋ51

Desperately

拼命

/ph/

/i/

phiŋ35.kuɔ214

Apple

蘋果

/ph/

/i/

phin55.thu35

Puzzle

拼圖

/ph/

/i/

phi55.thue214

Opening one’s legs

劈腿

/ph/

/i/

phi35.tɕhio35

Ball

皮球

/ph/

/i/

phiŋ35.tsɨ

Bottle

瓶子

/ph/

/i/

phəŋ51.tɑu51

Encounter

碰到

/ph/

/ə/

phuɔ35.phuɔ

Mother in law

婆婆

/ph/

/o/

pho51.pu51

Rag

破布

/ph/

/o/

Sprinkling water

潑水

/ph/

/o/

phəŋ35.io214

Friends

朋友

/ph/

/ə/

phəŋ35.tsɨ

Shed

棚子

/ph/

/ə/

phu51.pu51

Waterfall

瀑布

/ph/

/u/

phu55.khə51.phɑi35

Cards

撲克牌

/ph/

/u/

phu51.kuɑŋ55

Exposure

曝光

/ph/

/u/

phu55.mɑn214

Piggybank

撲滿

/ph/

/u/

phuu35.thɑu35

Grapes

葡萄

/ph/

/u/

tɑ51.ɕiɑŋ51

Elephant

大象

/t/

/ɑ/

ti51.thu35

Map

地圖

/t/

/i/

tɑn51.kɑu55

Cake

蛋糕

/t/

/ɑ/

Squatting

蹲著

/t/

/u/

tiŋ55.tsɨ

Nail

釘子

/t/

/i/

tu51.tsɨ

Stomach

肚子

/t/

/u/

thɑŋ35.kuɔ214

Candy

糖果

/th/

/ɑ/

thɑu35.tsɨ

Peach

桃子

/th/

/ɑ/

thiŋ55.thiŋ55.khɑn51

Listening to

聽聽看

/th/

/i/

thi 55.tsɨ

Rudder

梯子

/th/

/i/

thu214.sɨ55

Toast

吐司

/th/

/u/

thu51.tsɨ

Rabbit

兔子

/th/

/u/

kɑi51.tsɨ

Cover

蓋子

/k/

/ɑ/

kɑn214.khuɑi51

Hurry up

趕快

/k/

/ɑ/

kun51.tsɨ

Stick

棍子

/k/

/u/

ku214.tho35

Bone

骨頭

/k/

/u/

Track

卡車

/kh/

/ɑ/

khɑn51.piŋ51

Going to a clinic

看病

/kh/

/ɑ/

khu214.kuɑ55

Bitter melon

苦瓜

/kh/

/u/

Insects

昆蟲

/kh/

/u/

khu51.tsɨ

Pants

褲子

/kh/

/u/

  1. The numbers next to the phonetic transcriptions indicate tone variations: 55 refers to Tone I (High-level), 35 refers to Tone 2 (High-rising), 214 refers to Tone 3 (Low-dipping) and 51 refers to Tone 4 (High-falling)

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Tanaka, M., Chen, LM. & Hsu, CJ. Acquisition of Stop Consonants in Mandarin-Japanese Early Bilingual Children. J Psycholinguist Res 48, 307–329 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-018-9604-5

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