Abstract
Multiple methodological approaches have been used to explore adolescent alcohol use and related sexual behaviors, ranging from surveys to assessments of alcohol outlet density. Although surveys can capture the extent of alcohol use, they do not allow for a contextualized understanding of young people’s voiced experiences with alcohol, including sociocultural, gendered and environmental pressures to consume, and related engagement in sex. The mapping of alcohol outlets provides physical density information, but infrequently from youths’ perspectives. Traditional qualitative methods like in-depth interviews and focus group discussions do allow for a more nuanced understanding of adolescents’ experiences, but they can be limited by the use of semi-structured guides that may negatively impact the fluidity of discussion. We seek to contribute to the methodological approaches utilized with adolescents by demonstrating how contextualized data were captured from Tanzanian adolescents’ experiences of alcohol and sex, which are sensitive topics in many African countries. We collected data in secondary schools and youth centers across four sites in Dar es Salaam, the largest and most diverse city in Tanzania. As a complement to in-depth interviews, archival reviews, and a systematic mapping of alcohol availability, participatory methodologies such as photovoice, story writing, and drawing allowed Tanzanian youth to offer more honest, descriptions of lived experiences with their physical and social environment in relation to alcohol use and related sexual behavior patterns. Through participatory methods, study participants were able to discuss behaviors that are viewed as social transgressions, sensitive topics like violence in relation to sex, and views around their own self-agency. The use of a methodological toolkit including participatory methodologies enabled youth to trust the researchers and share sensitive information in a relatively short period of time, overcoming some of the challenges of traditional qualitative methods.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Airhihenbuwa, C. O., Shisana, O., Zungu, N., BeLue, R., Makofani, D. M., Shefer, T., et al. (2011). Research capacity building: A US–South African partnership. Global Health Promotion, 18(2), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757975911404745.
Ansell, N., Robson, E., Hajdu, F., & van Blerk, L. (2012). Learning from young people about their lives: Using participatory methods to research the impacts of AIDS in southern Africa. Children’s Geographies, 10(2), 169–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2012.667918.
Blum, R. W., Astone, N. M., Decker, M. R., & Chandra-Mouli, V. (2014). A conceptual framework for early adolescence: A platform for research. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 26(3), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2013-0327.
Bohn, A., & Berntsen, D. (2008). Life story development in childhood: The development of life story abilities and the acquisition of cultural life scripts from late middle childhood to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 1135–1147. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1135.
Campbell, C. A., Hahn, R. A., Elder, R., Brewer, R., Chattopadhyay, S., Fielding, J., et al. (2009). The effectiveness of limiting alcohol outlet density as a means of reducing excessive alcohol consumption and alcohol-related harms. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 37(6), 556–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.09.028.
Carlson, E. D., Engebretson, J., & Chamberlain, R. M. (2006). Photovoice as a social process of critical consciousness. Qualitative Health Research, 16(6), 836–852. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732306287525.
Catalano, R. F., Fagan, A. A., Gavin, L. E., Greenberg, M. T., Irwin, C. E., Ross, D. A., et al. (2012). Worldwide application of prevention science in adolescent health. The Lancet, 379(9826), 1653–1664. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(12)60238-4.
Das Gupta, M., Engelman, R., Levy, J., Luchsinger, G., Merrick, T., & Rosen, J. E. (2014). The power of 1.8 billion: Adolescents, youth and the transformation of the future. In UNFPA state of world population 2014. http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/EN-SWOP14-Report_FINAL-web.pdf. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
DiClemente, R. J., Swartzendruber, A. L., & Brown, J. L. (2013). Improving the validity of self-reported sexual behavior: No easy answers. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 40(2), 111–112. https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3182838474.
Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Shanklin, S., Flint, K. H., Hawkins, J., et al. (2012). Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries, 61(4), 1–162.
Fargas-Malet, M., McSheery, D., Larkin, E., & Robinson, C. (2010). Research with children: Methodological issues and innovative techniques. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 8(2), 175–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X09345412.
Fenton, K. A., Johnson, A. M., McManus, S., & Erens, B. (2001). Measuring sexual behaviour: Methodological challenges in survey research. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 77(2), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1136/STI.77.2.84.
Foster-Fishman, P., Mortensen, J., Berkowitz, S., Nowell, B., & Lichty, L. (2013). Photovoice : Using images to tell communities’ stories. Participant handbook. http://systemexchange.msu.edu/upload/Photovoice%20Training%20Manual_systemexchange.pdf. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder.
Gardner, M., & Steinberg, L. (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. Developmental Psychology, 41(4), 625–635. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.625.
Haworth, A., & Simpson, R. (2004). Moonshine markets: Issues in unrecorded alcohol beverage production and consumption. New York: Routledge.
Israel, B. A., Schulz, A. J., Parker, E. A., & Becker, A. B. (1998). Review of community-based research: Assessing partnership approaches to improve public health. Annual Review of Public Health, 19(1), 173–202. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.19.1.173.
Kalichman, S., Simbayi, L., Kaufman, M., Cain, D., & Jooste, S. (2007). Alcohol use and sexual risks for HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa: Systematic review of empirical findings. Prevention Science, 8(2), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-006-0061-2.
Latz, A. (2017). Photovoice research in education and beyond: A practical guide from theory to exhibition. New York: Taylor & Francis.
Lyimo, W. J., Masinde, J. M., & Chege, K. G. (2017). The influence of sex education on adolescents’ involvement in premarital sex and adolescent pregnancies in Arusha City, Tanzania. International Journal of Educational Policy Research and Review, 4(6), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.15739/IJEPRR.17.013.
Maughan-Brown, B., Evans, M., & George, G. (2016). Sexual behaviour of men and women within age-disparate partnerships in South Africa: Implications for young women’s HIV risk. PLoS ONE, 11(8), e0159162. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159162.
Mbatia, J., Jenkins, R., Singleton, N., & White, B. (2009). Prevalence of alcohol consumption and hazardous drinking, tobacco and drug use in urban Tanzania, and their associated risk factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6(7), 1991–2006. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6071991.
McCoy, S. I., Ralph, L. J., Wilson, W., & Padian, N. S. (2013). Alcohol production as an adaptive livelihood strategy for women farmers in Tanzania and its potential for unintended consequences on women’s reproductive health. PLoS ONE, 8(3), e59343. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0059343.
Mensch, B. S., Hewett, P. C., & Erulkar, A. (2003). The reporting of sensitive behavior by adolescents: A methodological experiment in Kenya. Demography, 40(2), 247–268. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2003.0017.
Minkler, M., Blackwell, A. G., Thompson, M., & Tamir, H. (2003). Community-based participatory research: Implications for public health funding. American Journal of Public Health, 93(8), 1210–1213. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.8.1210.
Mitchell, C. M., & Sommer, M. (2016). Participatory visual methodologies in global public health. Global Public Health, 11(5–6), 521–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1170184.
Mmari, K. N., & Blum, R. W. (2009). Risk and protective factors that affect adolescent reproductive health in developing countries: A structured literature review. Global Public Health, 4(4), 350–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690701664418.
Mnyika, K. S., Kvale, G., & Klepp, K. I. (1995). Perceived function of and barriers to condom use in Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions of Tanzania. AIDS Care, 7(3), 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540129550126524.
Morojele, N. K., & Ramsoomar, L. (2016). Addressing adolescent alcohol use in South Africa. South African Medical Journal, 106(6), 551–553. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAMJ.2016.v106i6.10944.
Mugisha, F., Arinaitwe-Mugisha, J., & Hagembe, B. O. N. (2003). Alcohol, substance and drug use among urban slum adolescents in Nairobi. Kenya. Cities, 20(4), 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-2751(03)00034-9.
Muzzini, E., & Lindeboom, W. (2008). The urban transition in Tanzania: Building the empirical base for policy dialogue. Washington: The World Bank.
Obasi, A. I., Cleophas, B., Ross, D. A., Chima, K. L., Mmassy, G., Gavyole, A., et al. (2006). Rationale and design of the MEMA kwa Vijana adolescent sexual and reproductive health intervention in Mwanza Region, Tanzania. AIDS Care, 18(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120500161983.
Onya, H., Tessera, A., Myers, B., & Flisher, A. (2012). Community influences on adolescents’ use of home-brewed alcohol in rural South Africa. BMC Public Health, 12(1), 642. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-642.
Otiso, K. M. (2013). Culture and customs of Tanzania. Santa Barbara: Greenwood.
Page, R. M., & Hall, C. P. (2009). Psychosocial distress and alcohol use as factors in adolescent sexual behavior among sub-Saharan African adolescents. Journal of School Health, 79(8), 369–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00423.x.
Palacios, J. F., Salem, B., Hodge, F. S., Albarrán, C. R., Anaebere, A., & Hayes-Bautista, T. M. (2015). Storytelling: A qualitative tool to promote health among vulnerable populations. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 26(4), 346–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659614524253.
Pasch, K. E., Komro, K. A., Perry, C. L., Hearst, M. O., & Farbakhsh, K. (2007). Outdoor alcohol advertising near schools: What does it advertise and how is it related to intentions and use of alcohol among young adolescents? Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(4), 587–596. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2007.68.587.
Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Sawyer, S. M., Viner, R. M., Haller, D. M., Bose, K., et al. (2009). Global patterns of mortality in young people: A systematic analysis of population health data. The Lancet, 374(9693), 881–892. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60741-8.
Plummer, M. L., Wight, D., Wamoyi, J., Mshana, G., Hayes, R. J., & Ross, D. A. (2006). Farming with your hoe in a sack: Condom attitudes, access and use in rural Tanzania. Studies in Family Planning, 37(1), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2006.00081.x.
Popova, S., Giesbrecht, N., Bekmuradov, D., & Patra, J. (2009). Hours and days of sale and density of alcohol outlets: Impacts on alcohol consumption and damage—A systematic review. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 44(5), 500–516. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agp054.
Powers, J. L., & Tiffany, J. S. (2006). Engaging youth in participatory research and evaluation. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 12(Suppl), S79–S87. https://doi.org/10.1097/00124784-200611001-00015.
Ritche, J., Lewis, J., McNaughton Nicholls, C., & Ormston, R. (2013). Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE.
Rowland, B., Toumbourou, J. W., & Livingston, M. (2015). The association of alcohol outlet density with illegal underage adolescent purchasing of alcohol. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(2), 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.08.005.
Rowland, B., Toumbourou, J. W., Satyen, L., Tooley, G., Hall, J., Livingston, M., et al. (2014). Associations between alcohol outlet densities and adolescent alcohol consumption: A study in Australian students. Addictive Behaviors, 39(1), 282–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.10.001.
Sommer, M. (2009). Ideologies of sexuality, menstruation and risk: Girls’ experiences of puberty and schooling in northern Tanzania. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 11(4), 383–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050902722372.
Sommer, M., Likindikoki, S., & Kaaya, S. (2013a). Boys’ and young men’s perspectives on violence in Northern Tanzania. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 15(6), 695–709. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2013.779031.
Sommer, M., Likindikoki, S., & Kaaya, S. (2013b). Parents, sons, and globalization in Tanzania: Implications for adolescent health. Boyhood Studies, 7(1), 43–63. https://doi.org/10.3149/thy.0701.43.
Sommer, M., Likindikoki, S., & Kaaya, S. (2015). “Bend a fish when the fish is not yet dry”: Adolescent boys’ perceptions of sexual risk in Tanzania. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 583–595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0406-z.
Stueve, A., & O’Donnell, L. (2005). Early alcohol initiation and subsequent sexual and alcohol risk behaviors among urban youths. American Journal of Public Health, 95(5), 887–893. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2003.026567.
Swahn, M. H., Ali, B., Palmier, J. B., Sikazwe, G., & Mayeya, J. (2011a). Alcohol marketing, drunkenness, and problem drinking among Zambian youth: Findings from the 2004 global school-based student health survey. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2011, 497827. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/497827.
Swahn, M. H., Ali, B., Palmier, J., Tumwesigye, N. M., Sikazwe, G., Twa-Twa, J., et al. (2011b). Early alcohol use and problem drinking among students in Zambia and Uganda. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 2(2), e20. https://doi.org/10.4081/jphia.2011.e20.
Swahn, M. H., & Donovan, J. E. (2004). Correlates and predictors of violent behavior among adolescent drinkers. Journal of Adolescent Health, 34(6), 480–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.08.018.
Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Tanzania population and housing census by age—2012. Tanzania. http://www.tzdpg.or.tz/fileadmin/documents/dpg_internal/dpg_working_groups_clusters/cluster_2/water/WSDP/Background_information/2012_Census_General_Report.pdf. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics. (2017). Tanzania total population by district: Regions—2016–2017. Tanzania. https://www.nbs.go.tz/index.php/en/census-surveys/population-and-housing-census/178-tanzania-total-population-by-district-regions-2016-2017. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
The United Republic of Tanzania. (1968). The intoxicating liquors act, 1968. http://www.tanzania.go.tz/egov_uploads/documents/The_Intoxiacating_Liquors_Act,_28-1968_en.pdf. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
UNAIDS. (2016). Country factsheets Tanzania | 2016 HIV and AIDS estimates. https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/UNAIDS_GlobalplanCountryfactsheet_tanzania_en.pdf. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
UNICEF. (2016). The state of the world’s children 2016: A fair chance for every child. New York: UNICEF. https://doi.org/10.18356/4fb40cfa-en.
Wang, C., & Burris, M. A. (1997). Photovoice: Concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health Education & Behavior, 24(3), 369–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/109019819702400309.
Weiser, S. D., Leiter, K., Heisler, M., McFarland, W., Korte, F. P., DeMonner, S. M., et al. (2006). A population-based study on alcohol and high-risk sexual behaviors in Botswana. PLoS Medicine, 3(10), e392. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030392.
Wright, A. L., Wahoush, O., Ballantyne, M., Gabel, C., & Jack, S. M. (2016). Qualitative health research involving indigenous peoples: Culturally appropriate data collection methods. Qualitative Report, 21(12), 2230–2245.
Acknowledgements
We would like to gratefully acknowledge funding support from the National Institutes on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. We would also like to express our deepest gratitude to our research assistants, our Tanzanian colleagues in the field sites, and to all the Tanzanian young people and adults who kindly provided time and information that made this research possible.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Institutes on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), under Grant #R21 AAA02286801A1.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors. IRB approval was sought (and given) to waive parental consent given the sensitivity of the research topics, and the likelihood that the youth would be less likely to share their perceptions about alcohol use and sexual activity if parents were notified about the contents of the study. However careful review was conducted to reasonably assure that the content being explored, most of it anonymous, would not cause harm to any participants. Due to the expected high levels of illiteracy across the participants, verbal consent was obtained. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sommer, M., Ibitoye, M., Likindikoki, S. et al. Participatory Methodologies With Adolescents: A Research Approach Used to Explore Structural Factors Affecting Alcohol Use and Related Unsafe Sex in Tanzania. J Primary Prevent 42, 363–384 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-020-00586-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-020-00586-0