Abstract
Purpose
Inclusive recruitment and employment of autistic adults has garnered recent attention in research and policy. To address a need to better understand the experiences of autistic adults in relation to paid employment, we asked the literature, what are the experiences of autistic individuals (from their perspectives) in competitive employment?
Methods
A scoping review was conducted to summarize and consolidate the findings across research to date. A systematic search and screen of the literature resulted in 32 relevant studies.
Findings
Key study characteristics, participant demographics, and thematic findings are shared, along with considerations and recommendations for future research and practice. Six key themes were described by autistic participants across the 32 studies: (1) accessibility of employment, (2) workplace relationships and communication, (3) role alignment, (4) sensory needs and/or mental health, (5) colleagues’ knowledge and beliefs about autism, and (6) family and community context.
Conclusion
It is anticipated that the results of this review will be beneficial for stakeholders engaging in discussions and decision-making across research and employment contexts.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10926-023-10163-x/MediaObjects/10926_2023_10163_Fig1_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Nicholas DB, Hedley D, Randolph JK, Raymaker DM, Robertson SM, Vincent J. An expert discussion on employment in autism. Autism Adulthood. 2019;1(3):162–169. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2019.29003.djn.
Zwicker J, Zaresani A, Emery JH. Describing heterogeneity of unmet needs among adults with a developmental disability: an examination of the 2012 Canadian Survey on Disability. Res Dev Disabil. 2017;65:1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.04.003.
Harmuth E, Silletta E, Bailey A, Adams T, Beck C, Barbic SP. Barriers and facilitators to employment for adults with autism: a scoping review. Ann Int Occup Ther. 2018;1(1):31–40. https://doi.org/10.3928/24761222-20180212-01.
Jones SC. Autistics working in academia: what are the barriers and facilitators? Autism. 2023;27(3):822–831. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221118158.
Lindsay S, Osten V, Rezai M, Bui S. Disclosure and workplace accommodations for people with autism: a systematic review. Disabil Rehabil. 2021;42(5):597–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2019.1635658.
López B, Keenan L. Barriers to employment in autism: future challenges to implementing the Adult Autism Strategy. Autism Research Network; 2021. p. 1–7. http://www.autismrpphub.org/sites/default/files/articles/employment_report.pdf. Accessed 11 June 2021.
Nicholas DB, Mitchell W, Dudley C, Clarke M, Zulla R. An ecosystem approach to employment and autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disorder. 2018;48(1):264–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3351-6.
Scheiner M, Bogden J. The neurodivergent job candidate: Recruiting autistic professionals. Routledge. 2021. https://doi.org/10.4224/9781003137306.
Scott M, Milbourn B, Falkmer M, Black M, Bӧlte S, Halladay A, Lerner M, Taylor JL, Girdler S. Factors impacting employment for people with autism spectrum disorder: a scoping review. Autism. 2019;23(4):869–901. https://doi.org/10.1177/136236131878778.
Davies J, Romualdez AM, Malyan D, Heasman B, Livesey A, Walker A, Pellicano E, Remington A. Autistic adults’ priorities for future autism employment research: perspectives from the United Kingdom. Autism Adulthood. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2022.0087.
Dreaver J, Thompson C, Girdler S, Adolfsson M, Black MH, Falkmer M. Success factors enabling employment for adults on the autism spectrum from employers’ perspective. J Autism Dev Disorder. 2020;50:1657–1667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-0392.
Edelson SM, Nicholas DB, Stoddart KP, Bauman MB, Mawlam L, Lawson WB, Jose C, Morris R, Wright SD. Strategies for research, practice, and policy for autism in later life: a report from a think tank on aging and autism. J Autism Dev Disorder. 2021;50:382–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04514-3.
Vincent J, Fabri M. The ecosystem of competitive employment for university graduates with autism. Int J Disabil Dev Educ. 2022;69(5):1823–1839. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2020.1821874.
Bakker T, Krabbendam L, Bhulai S, Begeer S. Background and enrollment characteristics of students with autism in higher education. Res Autism Spectrum Disord. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101414.
Rast JE, Roux AM, Shattuck PT. Use of vocational rehabilitation supports for postsecondary education among transition-age youth on the autism spectrum. J Autism Dev Disorder. 2020;49:2164–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03972-8.
Schall CM, Wehman P, Brooke V, Graham C, McDonough J, Brooke A, Ham W, Rounds R, Lau S, Allen J. Employment interventions for individuals with ASD: the relative efficacy of supported employment with or without prior Project SEARCH training. J Autism Dev Disorder. 2015;45:3990–4001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2416-5.
Black MH, Mahdi S, Milbourn B, Scott M, Gerber A, Esposito C, Falkmer M, Lerner MD, Halladay A, Ström E, D’Angelo A. Multi-informant international perspectives on the facilitators and barriers to employment for autistic adults. Autism Res. 2020;13(7):1195–1214. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2167.
Raymaker DM, Sharer M, Maslak J, Powers LE, McDonald KE, Kapp SK, Moura I, Wallington AF, Nicolaidis C. “[I] don’t wanna just be like a cog in the machine”: narratives of autism and skilled employment. Autism. 2023;27(1):65–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221080813.
Anderson C, Butt C, Sarsony C. Young adults on the autism spectrum and early employment-related experiences: aspirations and obstacles. J Autism Dev Disorder. 2021;51:88–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04513-4.
Cope R, Remington A. The strengths and abilities of autistic people in the workplace. Autism Adulthood. 2022;4(1):22–31. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2021.0037.
Romualdez AM, Heasman B, Walker Z, Davies J, Remington A. “People might understand me better”: diagnostic disclosure experiences of autistic individuals in the workplace. Autism Adulthood. 2021;3(2):157–167. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2020.0063.
Nicolaidis C, Raymaker D, Kapp SK, Baggs A, Ashkenazy E, McDonald K, Weiner M, Maslak J, Hunter M, Joyce A. The AASPIRE practice-based guidelines for the inclusion of autistic adults in research as co-researchers and study participants. Autism. 2019;23(8):2007–2019. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319830523.
Tan DW. Early-career autism researchers are shifting their research directions: tragedy or opportunity? Autism Adulthood. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2023.0021.
Peters MD, Godfrey CM, McInerney P, Soares CB, Khalil H, Parker D. The Joanna Briggs Institute reviewers’ manual 2015: methodology for JBI scoping reviews; 2015. http://joannabriggs.org/assets/docs/sumari/Reviewers-Manual_Methodology-for-JBI-Scoping-Reviews_2015_v2.pdf.
Arksey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methods. 2005;8(1):19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616.
Pozner A, Hammond J. An evaluation of supported employment initiatives for disabled people. Equal Divers Inclusion. 1994;13(6–7):45.
Chen X, Han T. A micro perspective of research dynamics through “citations of citations” topic analysis. J Data Inf Sci. 2020;5(4):19. https://doi.org/10.2478/jdis-2020-0034.
QSR International. NVivo qualitative data analysis software (Release 1.0); 2020.
Levitt HM. How to conduct a qualitative meta-analysis: Tailoring methods to enhance methodological integrity. Psychother Res. 2018;28(3):367–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2018.1447708.
Anderson A. Job seeking and daily workforce experiences of autistic librarians. Int J Inf. 2021;5(3):38–63. https://doi.org/10.33137/ijidi.v5i3.36196.
Conte DA. The lived experiences of adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the workplace: a descriptive phenomenological study (Publication No. 28315895). Doctoral Dissertation, Northcentral University; 2021. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Davies J, Heasman B, Livesey A, Walker A, Pellicano E, Remington A. Autistic adults’ views and experiences of requesting and receiving workplace adjustments in the UK. PLoS ONE. 2022;17(8): e0272410. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272410.
Harvery M, Froude EH, Foley KR, Trollor JN, Arnold SR. Employment profiles of autistic adults in Australia. Autism Res. 2021;14(10):2061–2077. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2588.
Martin N. Perspectives on UK university employment from autistic researchers and lecturers. Disabil Soc. 2021;36(9):1510–1531. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2020.1802579.
North G. Reconceptualising ‘reasonable adjustments’ for the successful employment of autistic women. Disabil Soc. 2021;21:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.1971065.
Ortiz CS. Engaging untapped talent: supporting autistic employees in meaningful employment. (Publication No. 10973021). Doctoral Dissertation, Regent University; 2018. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Wood R, Happé F. What are the views and experiences of autistic teachers? Findings from an online survey in the UK. Disabil Soc. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.1916888.
Berman, A. Making Work Work: improving employment outcomes for Autistic adults. (Publication No. 28965408). Doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University; 2022. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Bross LA, Patry MB, Leko M, Travers JC. Barriers to competitive integrated employment of young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Educ Train Autism Dev Disabil. 2021;56(4):394–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04517-0.
Buckley E, Pellicano E, Remington A. Higher levels of autistic traits associated with lower levels of self-efficacy and wellbeing for performing arts professionals. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(2): e0246413. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246413.
Buckley E, Pellicano E, Remington A. “The real thing I struggle with is other people’s perceptions”: the experiences of autistic performing arts professionals and attitudes of performing arts employers in the UK. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021;51:45–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04517-0.
Bury SM, Flower RL, Zulla R, Nicholas DB, Hedley D. Workplace social challenges experienced by employees on the autism spectrum: an international exploratory study examining employee and supervisor perspectives. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021;51(5):1614–1627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04662-6.
Goldfarb Y, Golan O, Gal E. A self-determination theory approach to work motivation of autistic adults: a qualitative exploratory study. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021;4:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05185-4.
Goldfarb Y, Gal E, Golan O. Implications of employment changes caused by COVID-19 on mental health and work-related psychological need satisfaction of autistic employees: a mixed-methods longitudinal study. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021;26:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04902-3.
Whelpley CE, Banks GC, Bochantin JE, Sandoval R. Tensions on the spectrum: an inductive investigation of employee and manager experiences of autism. J Bus Psychol. 2021;36:283–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-019-09676-1.
Johnson TD, Joshi A. Dark clouds or silver linings? A stigma threat perspective on the implications of an autism diagnosis for workplace well-being. J Appl Psychol. 2016;101(3):420. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000058.
Lorenz T, Frischling C, Cuadros R, Heinitz K. Autism and overcoming job barriers: comparing job-related barriers and possible solutions in and outside of autism-specific employment. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(1): e0146040.
McKnight-Lizotte M. Work-related communication barriers for individuals with autism: a pilot qualitative study. Aust J Rehabil Couns. 2018;24(1):12–26. https://doi.org/10.1017/jrc.2018.4.
Pfeiffer B, Braun K, Kinnealey M, Derstine Matczak M, Polatajko H. Environmental factors impacting work satisfaction and performance for adults with autism spectrum disorders. J Vocat Rehabil. 2017;46(1):1–2. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-170878.
Pfeiffer B, Brusilovskiy E, Davidson A, Persch A. Impact of person–environment fit on job satisfaction for working adults with autism spectrum disorders. J Vocat Rehabil. 2018;48(1):48–57. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-170915.
Scott M, Falkmer M, Girdler S, Falkmer T. Viewpoints on factors for successful employment for adults with autism spectrum disorder. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(10): e0139281.
Griffith GM, Totsika V, Nash S, Hastings RP. ‘I just don’t fit anywhere’: support experiences and future support needs of individuals with Asperger syndrome in middle adulthood. Autism. 2012;16(5):532–546. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311405223.
Krieger B, Kinebanian A, Prodinger B, Heigl F. Becoming a member of the work force: perceptions of adults with Asperger syndrome. Work. 2012;42(2):140–157. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-2012-1392.
Hurlbutt K, Chalmers L. Employment and adults with Asperger syndrome. Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl. 2004;19(4):215–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576040190040301.
Thompson WF. Employee perspectives: technology as an accommodation for employees with autism spectrum disorder (Publication No. 13409706). Doctoral Dissertation, New Jersey University; 2018. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Lizotte MC. A phenomenological study of vocational experiences in adult college graduates with autism spectrum disorders. (Publication No. 10140157). Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University; 2016. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Megrew LE. Neurodiversity and the organizational interview process: a phenomenological study of adult high-functioning Autists (Publication No. 27541600). Doctoral dissertation, Grand Canyon University; 2019. Proquest Dissertations Publishing.
Baldwin S, Costley D, Warren A. Employment activities and experiences of adults with high-functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;43(10):2430–2439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2112-z.
Müller E, Schuler A, Burton BA, Yates GB. Meeting the vocational support needs of individuals with Asperger syndrome and other autism spectrum disabilities. J Vocat Rehabil. 2003;18(3):163–175.
Hayward SM, McVilly KR, Stokes MA. Autism and employment: what works. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2019;60:48–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2019.01.006.
Rebholz CH. Life in the uncanny valley: Workplace issues for knowledge workers on the autism spectrum. (Publication No. 3680488). Doctoral Dissertation, Anitoch University Seattle; 2012. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Hull L, Petrides KV, Allison C, Smith P, Baron-Cohen S, Lai MC, Mandy W. “Putting on my best normal”: social camouflaging in adults with autism spectrum conditions. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47:2519–2534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5.
Lawson WB. Adaptive morphing and coping with social threat in autism: an autistic perspective. J Intellect Disabil Diagn Treat. 2020;8(3):519–526. https://doi.org/10.6000/2292-2598.2020.08.03.29.
Prince MJ. Persons with invisible disabilities and workplace accommodation: findings from a scoping literature review. J Vocat Rehabil. 2017;46:75–86. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-160844.
Vedeler JS, Anvik CH. What’s the ‘problem’ with workplace accommodation? A disability policy journey over time. Scand J Disabil Res. 2023;25(1):119–131. https://doi.org/10.16993/sjdr.918.
Austin RD, Pisano GP. Neurodiversity as a competitive advantage. Harv Bus Rev. 2017;95(3):96–103.
Charlton RA, Entecott T, Belova E, Nwaordu G. “It feels like holding back something you need to say”: autistic and non-autistic adults accounts of sensory experiences and stimming. Autism Res. 2021;89: 101864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101864.
Nicolaidis C, Raymaker DM, Ashkenazy E, McDonald KE, Dern S, Baggs AE, Kapp SK, Weiner M, Boisclair WC. “Respect the way I need to communicate with you”: healthcare experiences of adults on the autism spectrum. Autism. 2015;19(7):824–831.
Hayward SM, McVilly KR, Stokes MA. Challenges for females with high functioning autism in the workplace: a systematic review. Disabil Rehabil. 2018;40(3):249–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1254284.
Hughes AM, Zajac S, Woods AL, Salas E. The role of work environment in training sustainment: a meta-analysis. Hum Factors. 2019;62(1):166–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720819845988.
Marenus MW, Marzec M, Chen W. A scoping review of workplace culture of health measures. Am J Health Promot. 2023;26:08901171231179160.
Martin S. Industrial organization in context. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2010.
Gronseth SL, Hutchins HM. Flexibility in formal workplace learning: technology applications for engagement through the lens of Universal Design for Learning. TechTrends. 2020;64(2):211–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-019-00455-6.
Sheppard-Jones K, Goldstein P, Leslie M, Singleton P, Gooden C, Rumrill P, Mullis L, Espinosa BC. Reframing workplace inclusion through the lens of universal design: considerations for vocational rehabilitation professionals in the wake of COVID-19. J Vocat Rehabil. 2021;54(1):71–79. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-2-1119.
Crane L, Batty R, Adeyinka H, Goddard L, Henry LA, Hill EL. Autism diagnosis in the United Kingdom: perspectives of autistic adults, parents and professionals. J Autism Dev Disord. 2018;48:3761–3772. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3639-1.
Jones L, Goddard L, Hill EL, Henry LA, Crane L. Experiences of receiving a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder: a survey of adults in the United Kingdom. J Autism Dev Disord. 2014;43:3033–3043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2161-3.
Lewis LF. A mixed methods study of barriers to formal diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in adults. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47:2400–2424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3168-3.
Colella A, Bruyère SM. Implications and needed next steps. Neurodiversity in the workplace. London: Routledge; 2022. p. 316–328.
Roberson Q, Quigley NR, Vickers K, Bruck I. Reconceptualizing leadership from a neurodiverse perspective. Group Org Manag. 2021;46(2):399–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120987293.
Singer J. Odd people in: the birth of community amongst people on the autistic spectrum: a personal exploration of a new social movement based on neurological diversity. Masters thesis. Sydney: University of Technology; 1998.
Austin RD. Hart Schaffner Marx: neurodiversity employment at a classic American suit maker. Ivey Business School Case 9B14C048; 2018.
Fuentes K, Hsu S, Patel S, Lindsay S. More than just double discrimination: a scoping review of the experiences and impact of ableism and racism in employment. Disabil Rehabil. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2023.2173315.
Crenshaw K. Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Rev. 1990;42:1240. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039.
Morris R, Greenblatt A, Saini M. Working beyond capacity: a qualitative review of research on healthcare providers’ experiences with autistic individuals. Rev J Autism Dev Disord. 2023;10(1):158–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-021-00283-6.
Funding
The lead author on this project is a Canada Graduate Scholarship Award Holders (Grant Number: 767-2022-1558). While funding is not specifically allocated to this project from these scholarships, authors are obliged to share this funding source.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
SS and RM wrote the main manuscript, figures and tables. DN and MP reviewed manuscript and made editing suggestions.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Ethical Approval
This submission is a scoping review and in accordance with Wilfrid Laurier University Ethics Committee, it does not require ethical approval.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Southey, S., Morris, R., Nicholas, D. et al. Autistic Perspectives on Employment: A Scoping Review. J Occup Rehabil (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-023-10163-x
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-023-10163-x