Skip to main content
Log in

The Humanities in Medical Education: Ways of Knowing, Doing and Being

  • Published:
Journal of Medical Humanities Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The personhood of the physician is a crucial element in accomplishing the goals of medicine. We review claims made on behalf of the humanities in guiding professional identity formation. We explore the dichotomy that has evolved, since the Renaissance, between the humanities and the natural sciences. The result of this evolution is an historic misconstrual, preoccupying educators and diverting them from the moral development of physicians. We propose a curricular framework based on the recovery of Aristotelian concepts that bridge identity and activity. The humanities and the natural sciences, jointly and severally, can fulfill developmental, characterological and instrumental purposes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Belling, Catherine. 2010. “Sharper Instruments: On Defending the Humanities in Undergraduate Medical Education.” Academic Medicine 85:938–940.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birmingham, Carrie. 2004. “Phronesis: A Model for Pedagogical Reflection.” Journal of Teacher Education 55:313–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bleakley, Alan, Robert Marshall and Rainer Brömer. 2006. “Toward an Aesthetic Medicine: Developing a Core Medical Humanities Undergraduate Curriculum.” Journal of Medical Humanities 27:197–213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boudreau, J. Donald, Eric J. Cassell and Abraham Fuks. 2007. “A Healing Curriculum.” Medical Education 41:1193–1201.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boudreau, J. Donald and Eric J. Cassell. 2010. “Abraham Flexner’s ‘Mooted Question’ and the Story of Integration.” Academic Medicine 85:378–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boudreau, J. Donald, Sylvia R. Cruess, Richard L. Cruess. 2011. “Physicianship: Educating for Professionalism in the Post-Flexnarian Era.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 54:89–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, Howard. 2011. “Defining the Medical Humanities: Three Conceptions and Three Narratives.” Journal of Medical Humanities 32:1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bronowski, Jacob. 1973. “Copernicus as a Humanist.” Lecture Delivered to the National Academy of Science. April 23, 1973. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute.

  • Bruner, Jerome. 1986. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, Walter B. 1932. The Wisdom of the Body. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr, David. 2011. Educating the Virtues. An Essay on the Philosophical Psychology of Moral Development and Education. New York: Routledge: Chapmen and Hall.

  • Charon, Rita. 2001. “Narrative medicine: A Model for Empathy, Reflection, Profession and Trust.” Journal of the American Medical Association 286:1897–1902.

  • Chambers, Tod. 2009. “Manifesto for Medicine Studies.” Atrium 7:5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Childs, Barton, Charles Wiener and David Valle. 2005. “A Science of the Individual: Implications for a School Curriculum.” Annual Review of Human Genetics 6:313–330.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke, Molly, David Irby and Bridget O’Brien. 2010. Educating Physicians: A Call for Reform of Medical School and Residency. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

  • Cordell, Eugene. F. 1904. “The Importance of the Study of the History of Medicine.” Medical Library and Historical Journal 2:268–282.

  • Cruess, Richard L. and Sylvia R. Cruess. 1997. “Teaching Medicine as a Profession in the Service of Healing.” Academic Medicine 72:941–952.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dana, Charles L. 1922. “Medicine and the Humanities.” Annals of Medical History 4:328–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewy, John. 1988 (1938). Experience and Education. The 60th anniversary edition. West Lafayette, Ind: Kappa Delta Pi.

  • Doukas, David J., Laurence B. McCullough and Stephen Wear. 2012. “Medical Education in Medical Ethics and Humanities as the Foundation for Developing Medical Professionalism.” Academic Medicine 87:334–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, Joseph. 1993. Back to the Rough Ground: Phronesis and Techne in Modern Philosophy and in Aristotle. Notre Dame, Ind: University of Notre Dame Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, Martyn. 2002. “Reflections on the Humanities in Medical Education.” Medical Education 36:508–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, Charles R., Lise E. Dahill, Lawrence A. Golemon and Barbara Wang Tolentino. 2006. Educating Clergy. Teaching Practices and Pastoral Imagination. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

  • Fuks, Abraham, James Brawer and J. Donald Boudreau. 2012. “The Foundation of Physicianship.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 55(1): 114–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goetz Jennifer L. Dacher Keltner and Emiliana Simon-Thomas. 2010. “Compassion: An Evolutionary Analysis and Empirical Review.” Psychological Bulletin 136:351–374.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, J. Jill. 2008. “Medical Humanities: State of the Heart.” Medical Education 42:333–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gracia, Diego. 1985. “Viejas y Neuvas Humanidades Médicas.” Revista de Occidente 47:65–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, J.S. 1986. “Scribonius Largus on the Medical Profession.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 60:209–216.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmgren, Lindsay, Abraham Fuks, J. Donald Boudreau, Tabitha Sparks and Martin Kreiswirth. 2011. “Terminology and Praxis: Clarifying the Scope of ‘Narrative’ in Medicine.” Literature and Medicine 29:246–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hook, Edward W. 1997. “Humanities in Medicine: Treatment of a Deficiency Disorder.” Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association 108:203–221.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, Mark. 2002. “Back to the Future: History and Humanism in Medical Education.” Medical Education 36:506–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeger, Werner. 1943. Humanism and Theology. The Aquinas Lecture, 1943. Milwaukee, Wis: Marquette University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaldjian, Lauris Christopher. 2010. “Teaching Practical Wisdom in Medicine Through Clinical Judgement, Goals of Care, and Ethical Reasoning.” Journal of Medical Ethics 36:558–562.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinghorn, Warren A. 2010. “Medical Education as Moral Formation: An Aristotelian Account of Medical Professionalism.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 53:87–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kristeller, Paul Oskar. 1961. Renaissance Thought: The Classic, Scholastic, and Humanist Strains. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristjánsson, Kristján. 2007. Aristotle, Emotions and Education. Hampshire. Eng: Ashgate Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liaison Committee on Medical Education. Standard MS-1. Functions and Structure of a Medical School: Accreditation Standards. Accessed December 5, 2012. http://www.lcme.org/standard.htm.

  • Lines, David A. 2002. Aristotle’s Ethics in the Italian Renaissance (ca. 1300–1650). The Universities and the Problem of Moral Education. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.

  • MacIntyre, Alasdair. 1981. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. Notre Dame, Ind: University of Notre Dame Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macnaughton, Jane. 2011. “Medical Humanities’ Challenge to Medicine.” Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 17:927–932.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osler, William. 1899. “Address to the Students of Albany Medical College.” Albany Medical Annals 20:307–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • ____. 1913. A Way of Life. Charles C. Thomas, Spingfield, Ill.

  • Ousager, Jakob and Helle Johannessen. 2010. “Humanities in Undergraduate Medical Education: A Literature Review.” Academic Medicine 85:988–998.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelligrino, Edmund D. 1987. “The Reconciliation of Technology & Humanism: A Flexnerian Task 75 years Later.” In Flexner: 75 years Later, edited by C. Vivier, 16–34. Lanham, Md: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, Robert E. 1988. Defining the humanities. Blomington, Ind: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramberg, Bjørn and Kristin Gjesdal. 2013. “Hermeneutics.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by E. N. Zalta. Accessed July 12, 2013. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2013/entries/hermeneutics.

  • Saarinen, Risto. 2011. Weakness of Will in Renaissance and Reformation Thought. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sarton, George. 1936. “Humanism versus Grammer.” Preface to Volume XXV. Isis 25:3–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, Andrea Wershof, Jeremy S. Abramson, Israel Wojnowich, Robert Accordino, Edward J. Ronan and Mary R. Rifkin. 2009. “Evaluating the Impact of the Humanities in Medical Education.Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 76:372–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, Michael Alan and Osborne Wiggins. 1985. “Science, Humanism, and the Nature of Medical Practice: A Phenomenological View.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 28:331–361.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Self, Donnie J., ed. 1978. The Role of the Humanities in Medical Education. Bio-Medical Ethics Program, Eastern Virginia Medical School. Norfolk: Virginia.

  • Shapiro, Johanna. 2012. “Whither (Whether) Medical Humanities? The Future of Humanities and Arts in Medical Education.” Journal for Learning through the Arts 8(1):clta_lta_11796.

  • Stempsey, William E. 1999. “The Quarantine of Philosophy in Medical Education: Why Teaching the Humanities May Not Produce Humane Physicians.” Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 2:3–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ____. 2007. “Medical Humanities and Philosophy: Is the Universe Expanding or Contracting?” Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 14:373–383.

  • Suchman, Anthony L. and Dale A. Matthews. 1988. “What Makes the Patient-Doctor Relationship Therapeutic? Exploring the Connexional Dimension of Medical Care.” Annals of Internal Medicine 108:125–130.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toulmin, Stephen. 1988. “The Recovery of Practical Philosophy.” American Scholar 57:337–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verducci, Susan. 2000. “A Conceptual History of Empathy and a Question It Raises for Moral Education.” Educational Theory 50:63–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, Jean. 1985. Nursing: Human Science and Human Care. Norwalk, Conn: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Dr. Boudreau is an Arnold P. Gold Foundation Associate Professor of Medicine, and he wishes to recognize the foundation’s financial support during the period that the manuscript was conceived. We thank Professors Al Miller, Maria Miller, Irene Gammel and Faith Wallis for their critical review of early drafts of the manuscript. We are deeply appreciative of the thoughtful editorial advice provided so frequently and offered so graciously by Sylvia Fuks Fried of Brandeis University.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. Donald Boudreau.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Boudreau, J.D., Fuks, A. The Humanities in Medical Education: Ways of Knowing, Doing and Being. J Med Humanit 36, 321–336 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10912-014-9285-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10912-014-9285-5

Keywords

Navigation