Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Multidimensional Flourishing in Africa: An Intracontinental Analysis of 38 Well-Being Indicators in 40 Countries

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite the rising global interest in well-being and its various dimensions, research in this area has been criticized for its Western-centric conceptual and geographical emphasis. In this cross-sectional study, we leverage more than 30 indicators of well-being from three years of Gallup World Poll (2020–2022) data to explore the diversity of well-being in nationally representative samples from 40 countries on the African continent (N = 90,093). Our descriptive analysis provided evidence of between-country differences in well-being, including among countries within the same region. There was also some evidence of within-country variation across the indicators of well-being. We draw on several theoretical perspectives to discuss the diverse experiences of well-being in the African context, highlighting the importance of applying a culturally sensitive lens to understanding and promoting well-being. Our descriptive exploration of multidimensional well-being in Africa shines a spotlight on a part of the world that has received comparatively less empirical attention in this area, and provides a useful foundation for future research toward building a more inclusive and diverse global picture of human flourishing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdelkader, H. E. M. (2017). Political instability and economic growth in Egypt. Review of Middle East Economics and Finance, 13(2), 20170019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. Crown Publishers.

  • Alkire, S. (2005). Subjective quantitative studies of human agency. Social Indicators Research, 74, 217–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Appiah, K. A. (2008). Ethics in a World of strangers: W.E.B. Du Bois and the spirit of cosmopolitanism. Ethics, 118(4), 673–701. https://doi.org/10.1086/590163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt, C., & Simler, K. R. (2010). Estimating utility-consistent poverty lines with applications to Egypt and Mozambique. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 58(3), 449–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azibo, D. A. (1991). Towards a metatheory of the African personality. Journal of Black Psychology, 17(2), 37–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bates, W. (2009). Gross national happiness. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 23(2), 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas-Diener, R., Vittersø, J., & Diener, E. (2005). Most people are pretty happy, but there is cultural variation: The Inughuit, the Amish, and the Maasai. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 205–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-5683-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsen, L., & Bruggemann, R. (2022). The 17 United Nations’ sustainable development goals: A status by 2020. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 29(3), 219–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., Cowden, R. G., Fulks, J., Plake, J. F., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2022). National data on age gradients in well-being among US adults. JAMA Psychiatry, 79(10), 1046–1047. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.2473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chipare, M. A., Tapera, R., Pachawo, R. F., & January, J. (2020). Exploring the evolution of health promotion in Namibia: Opportunities and obstacles during the post-independence era. Global Health Promotion, 27(4), 107–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., & Miller, G. E. (2007). Psychological stress and disease. JAMA, 298(14), 1685–1687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coulthard, S., Johnson, D., & McGregor, J. A. (2011). Poverty, sustainability and human wellbeing: A social wellbeing approach to the global fisheries crisis. Global Environmental Change, 21(2), 453–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Counted, V., Pargament, K. I., Bechara, A. O., Joynt, S., & Cowden, R. G. (2022). Hope and well-being in vulnerable contexts during the COVID-19 pandemic: Does religious coping matter? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 17(1), 70–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1832247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowden, R. G., Counted, V., & Ho, M. Y. (2023a). Positive psychology and religion/spirituality across cultures in Africa, Asia, and Oceania. In E. B. Davis, E. L. Worthington, & S. A. Schnitker (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology, religion, and spirituality (pp. 243–259). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cowden, R. G., Nakamura, J. S., Pacheco, P. D. L. R. F., Chen, Y., Fulks, J., Plake, J. F., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2023b). The road to postpandemic recovery in the USA: A repeated cross-sectional survey of multidimensional well-being over two years. Public Health, 217, 212–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2023.02.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowden, R. G., Tucker, L. A., & Govender, K. (2020). Conceptual pathways to HIV risk in Eastern and Southern Africa: An integrative perspective on the development of young people in contexts of social-structural vulnerability. In K. Govender & N. K. Poku (Eds.), Preventing HIV Among Young People in Southern and Eastern Africa (pp. 31–47). Routledge.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Diener, M., & Diener, C. (1995). Factors predicting the subjective well-being of nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 851–864. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.851

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Tay, L. (2018). Advances in subjective well-being research. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(4), 253–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D. W., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010a). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010b). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 143–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolan, P., Peasgood, T., & White, M. (2008). Do we really know what makes us happy? A review of the economic literature on the factors associated with subjective well-being. Journal of Economic Psychology, 29(1), 94–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durkheim, E. (1897). Le suicide : étude de sociologie. Alcan.

  • Ebimgbo, S. O., Obi-Keguna, C. N., Chukwu, N. E., Onalu, C. E., Abonyi, S. E., & Okoye, U. O. (2019). Culture-based social support to older adults in Nnewi South-East Nigeria. African Population Studies, 33(2), 4891–4900. https://doi.org/10.11564/33-2-1402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Govender, K., Cowden, R. G., Nyamaruze, P., Armstrong, R. M., & Hatane, L. (2020). Beyond the disease: Contextualized implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for children and young people living in Eastern and Southern Africa. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 504. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00504

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Govender, K., Nyamaruze, P., McKerrow, N., Meyer-Weitz, A., & Cowden, R. G. (2022). COVID-19 vaccines for children and adolescents in Africa: Aligning our priorities to situational realities. BMJ Global Health, 7(2), e007839. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-007839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gyekye, K. (1997). Tradition and modernity: Philosophical reflections on the African experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hamadi, A. & Datoussaid, A. (2019). Endogenous Institutional Change in Favor of Access to Medicines: The Case of Algeria (2019). El-Bahith Review https://ssrn.com/abstract=3669027

  • Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. D., & Neve, J. E. D. (2021). World Happiness Report 2021. Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Retrieved online 5/2/2023 https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=hw_happiness

  • Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. D., De Neve, J.-E., Aknin, L. B., & Wang, S. (2023). World Happiness Report. Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Retrieved online 5/1/2023 at https://happiness-report.s3.amazonaws.com/2023/WHR+23.pdf

  • Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jebb, A. T., Tay, L., Diener, E., & Oishi, S. (2018). Happiness, income satiation and turning points around the world. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(1), 33–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The Day Reconstruction Method. Science, 306(5702), 1776–1780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 219–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R. (1994). Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence. American Psychological Association.

  • Kroh, J., & Prechsl, S. (2023). The intervening role of social integration in the effect of education on subjective mental health. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 85, 100786.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Layard, R., Clark, A. E., Cornaglia, F., Powdthavee, N., & Vernoit, J. (2014). What predicts a successful life? A life-course model of well-being. The Economic Journal, 124(580), F720–F738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M., Kubzansky, L. D., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2021). Measuring Well-Being: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from the Social Sciences and the Humanities. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lomas, T. (2016). Towards a positive cross-cultural lexicography: Enriching our emotional landscape through 216 ‘untranslatable’words pertaining to well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 546–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lomas, T. (2023). Exploring associations between income and wellbeing: New global insights from the Gallup World Poll. The Journal of Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2023.2248963

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lomas, T., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2022). The garden and the orchestra: Generative metaphors for conceptualizing the complexities of well-being. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14544. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lukhele, S. (2015). East Africa copes with a refugee burden. Africa Conflict Monitor, 2015(05), 44–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, C. A. (2011). Unnatural emotions: Everyday sentiments on a Micronesian atoll and their challenge to Western theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maher, M., & Zhao, Y. (2022). Do political instability and military expenditure undermine economic growth in Egypt? Evidence from the ARDL approach. Defence and Peace Economics, 33(8), 956–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto, D. (2001). Culture and psychology: People around the world. Wadsworth.

  • Metz, T. (2011). Ubuntu as a moral theory and human rights in South Africa. African Human Rights Law Journal, 11(2), 532–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metz, T., & Gaie, J. (2010a). The African ethic of Ubuntu/Botho: Implications for research on morality. Journal of Moral Education, 39(3), 273–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2010.497609

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metz, T., & Gaie, J. B. (2010b). The African ethic of Ubuntu/Botho: Implications for research on morality. Journal of Moral Education, 39(3), 273–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2011). Attachment, anger, and aggression. In P. R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer (Eds.), Human aggression and violence: Causes, manifestations, and consequences (pp. 241–257). American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mkhize, N. (2021). African/Afrikan-centered psychology. South African Journal of Psychology, 51(3), 422–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neblett, E. W., Jr., Hammond, W. P., Seaton, E. K., & Townsend, T. G. (2010). Underlying mechanisms in the relationship between Africentric worldview and depressive symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(1), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017710

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Negedu, I. A., & Ojomah, S. O. (2022). Remedial Approach to Cultural Globalization and Intercultural Competence (pp. 193–207). Springer, Cham: Essays on Contemporary Issues in African Philosophy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nell, W., & Rothmann, S. (2018). Hope, religiosity, and subjective well-being. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(4), 253–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nkama, C. L. (2022). African Traditional Religious Practices as Social Regulatory Mechanism: The ‘Ulo Ubu’Example in Amasiri. Nigeria. Journal of Religion in Africa, 51(3–4), 263–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norenzayan, A., & Heine, S. J. (2005). Psychological universals: What are they and how can we know? Psychological Bulletin, 131(5), 763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nussbaum, M. C. (2000). Women and human development: The capabilities approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S., & Diener, E. (2014). Residents of poor nations have a greater sense of meaning in life than residents of wealthy nations. Psychological Science, 25(2), 422–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okulicz-Kozaryn, A. (2017). Unhappy metropolis (when American city is too big). Cities, 61, 144–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omodei, M. M., & Wearing, A. J. (1990). Need satisfaction and involvement in personal projects: Toward an integrative model of subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(4), 762–769. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.4.762

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prati, G., & Mancini, A. D. (2021). The psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns: A review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and natural experiments. Psychological Medicine, 51(2), 201–211. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721000015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reyntjens, F. (2016). (Re-) imagining a reluctant post-genocide society: The Rwandan Patriotic Front’s ideology and practice. Journal of Genocide Research, 18(1), 61–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riddle, A. Y., Li, W., Bhutta, Z. A., Vlassoff, C., Taljaard, M., Kristjansson, E., Welch, V., & Wells, G. A. (2023). Associations between dimensions of empowerment and nutritional status among married adolescent girls in East Africa: A structural equation modelling study. BMC Public Health, 23(1), 225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., & Sudman, S. (Eds.). (1994). Autobiographical memory and the validity of retrospective reports. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiba, K., Cowden, R. G., Gonzalez, N., Lee, M. T., Lomas, T., Lai, A. Y., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2022). Global trends of mean and inequality in multidimensional wellbeing: Analysis of 1.2 million individuals from 162 countries, 2009–2019. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 824960. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.824960

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, D. C. (1980). Does rapid economic growth improve the human lot? Some empirical evidence. Social Indicators Research, 8, 199–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, B., & Wolfers, J. (2008). Economic growth and subjective well-being: Reassessing the Easterlin paradox (No. w14282). National Bureau of Economic Research.

  • Swartz, L., Kilian, S., Twesigye, J., Attah, D., & Chiliza, B. (2014). Language, culture, and task shifting–an emerging challenge for global mental health. Global Health Action, 7(1), 23433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C., Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. Organizational Identity: A Reader, 56(65), 9780203505984–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tejani, S. (2007). Music, Mosques and custom: Local conflict and ‘communalism’in a Maharashtrian Weaving Town, 1893–1894. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 30(2), 223–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Transparency International. (2019). Corruption Perceptions Index 2019. https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2019

  • Ukagwu, E. (2022). Hospitality in Indigenous Nigerian Cultures. Humanistic Perspectives in Hospitality and Tourism, Volume II: CSR and Person-Centred Care (pp. 41–57). Springer International Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • UNESCO. (2014). Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all. Global Monitoring Report. https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/report/2014/teaching-and-learning-achieving-quality-all

  • United Nations Development Programme. (2020). Human Development Reports. http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries

  • Ura, K., Alkire, S., Zangmo, T., & Wangdi, K. (2012). A short guide to gross national happiness index. The Centre for Bhutan Studies.

  • VanderWeele, T. J., Case, B. W., Chen, Y., Cowden, R. G., Johnson, B., Lee, M. T., Lomas, T., & Long, K. G. (2023). Flourishing in critical dialogue. SSM Mental Health, 3, 100172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (2000). The Four Qualities of Life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1, 1–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verweijen, J. (2016). Stable instability: Political settlements and armed groups in the Congo. Rift Valley Institute.

  • Voukelatou, V., Gabrielli, L., Miliou, I., Cresci, S., Sharma, R., Tesconi, M., & Pappalardo, L. (2021). Measuring objective and subjective well-being: Dimensions and data sources. International Journal of Data Science and Analytics, 11, 279–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson Fadiji, A., de la Rosa, P. A., Counted, V., De Kock, J. H., Bronkhorst, W. L. R., Joynt, S., Tesfai, A., Nyamaruze, P., Govender, K., & Cowden, R. G. (2023). Flourishing during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal study in South Africa. Psychological Reports. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941231161753

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (2012). Devolution without disruption: pathways to a successful new Kenya. World Bank.

  • World Health Organization. (2017). Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/254610. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO

  • World Health Organization. (2020). World Health Statistics 2020: Monitoring Health for the SDGs. https://www.who.int/data/gho/publications/world-health-statistics

  • Worthington, E. L., Jr., & Cowden, R. G. (2017). The psychology of forgiveness and its importance in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 47(3), 292–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246316685074

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zinkina, J., Ustiuzhanin, V., & Shulgin, S. (2022). Social macroevolution and changes in the human value systems how has modernization affected human values? Social Evolution and History, 21(2), 91–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA, USA

    Victor Counted

  2. The Human Flourishing Program, Institute of Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA

    Victor Counted & Richard G. Cowden

  3. Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, The Human Flourishing Program, Institute of Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA

    Timothy Lomas

Authors
  1. Victor Counted
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Richard G. Cowden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Timothy Lomas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Victor Counted.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing interests that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Ethical Approval and Informed Consent

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Thus, the survey was conducted by Gallup in accordance with their established ethical procedures, including informed consent.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 38 kb)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Counted, V., Cowden, R.G. & Lomas, T. Multidimensional Flourishing in Africa: An Intracontinental Analysis of 38 Well-Being Indicators in 40 Countries. J Happiness Stud 25, 51 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00764-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-024-00764-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation