Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Psychological Maturity Predicts Different Forms of Happiness

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Are more mature people happier? Do they experience a different form of happiness? The current mixed-methods study explored these questions by recruiting 35 adults at different stages of adult psychological maturity as operationalized by Robert Kegan’s subject-object theory. Happiness was measured quantitatively in both hedonic and eudaimonic forms, and qualitatively as the structure of an adult’s conceptualization of happiness. Psychological maturity was measured with the subject-object interview. Quantitative findings revealed a curvilinear relationship between maturity and happiness, such that participants near the 4th stage of adult maturity (self-authoring mind) reported greater levels of happiness than those closer to the 3rd stage (socialized mind) and 5th stage (self-transforming mind). The qualitative findings suggest that participants at or near each of the three adult maturity stages described a structurally different form of happiness. Combined, the results suggest that: (1) happiness may change qualitatively as an adult matures psychologically; (2) extant quantitative measures of happiness may be inadvertently capturing one of several possible qualitative forms of the construct in adulthood. The implications for the current understanding of wellbeing, and its measurement, are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alker, H., & Gawin, F. (1978). On the intrapsychic specificity of happiness. Journal of Personality, 46, 311–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ardelt, M. (1997). Wisdom and life satisfaction in old age. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52(1), P15–P27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armon, C., & Dawson, T. L. (2002). The good life. In Handbook of adult development (pp. 271–300). Springer, Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, R., & Flint, J. (2001). Accessing Hidden and Hard-to-reach Populations: Snowball Research Strategies. Social Research Update, 33, 1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, J. J., Schwab, J. R., & McAdams, D. P. (2011). Self-actualization: Where ego development finally feels good? The Humanistic Psychologist, 39, 121–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowling, N. A., Eschleman, K. J., & Wang, Q. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 915–934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlquist, E., Ulleberg, P., Delle, Fave A., Nafstad, H. E., & Blakar, R. M. (2017). Everyday understandings of happiness, good life, and satisfaction: Three different facets of well-being. Applied Research in Quality of Life., 12, 481–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, J., Coughlin, J., & D’Ambrosio, L. (2013). Travel time and subjective well-being. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2357, 100–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook-Greuter, S. (2005), “Ego development: Nine levels of increasing embrace”, available at: http://newpossibilitiesassociates.com/uploads/9_levels_of_increasing_embrace_update_1_07.pdf (accessed April 4, 2012).

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008a). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008b). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delle Fave A., Brdar, I., Wissing, M. P., Araujo, U., Castro Solano A., Freire, T., et al. (2016). Lay definitions of happiness across nations: The primacy of inner harmony and relational connectedness. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 30. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2002). Will money increase subjective well-being? Social Indicators Research, 57(2), 119–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larson, R. J., & Griffen, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, Erik H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, S., & Torzynski, R. (1993). Virtue and well-being: Evidence for Aristotle’s Eudaimonic theory of happiness. Paper presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association, Phoenix, AZ.

  • Garvey-Berger, J. (2006). Key concepts for understanding the work of Robert Kegan. Kenning Associates.

  • Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H. (2002). The role of authenticity in healthy psychological functioning and subjective well-being. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 5(6), 18–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunaratana, B. (2001). Eight mindful steps to happiness: Walking the path of the Buddha. Somerville: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamamura, T. (2012). Are cultures becoming individualistic? A cross-temporal comparison of individualism-collectivism in the U.S. and Japan. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16, 3–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helson, R., & Wink, P. (1987). Two conceptions of maturity examined in the findings of a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 531–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huta, V., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Pursuing pleasure or virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic motives. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(6), 735–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, I. (1997). Lecture on Aristotle’s Nicomachaean Ethics. Electronic version, retrieved from http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/introser/aristot.htm

  • Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 219–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1996). Further examining the American dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(3), 280–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kegan, R. (2003). Hidden curriculum of adult life: An adult development perspective. In T. Hagström (Ed.), Adult development in post-industrial society and working life (2nd ed). Stockholm: Stockholm University, Dept. of Education.

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (1998). Social well-being. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61(2), 121–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, L. A., Scollon, C. K., Ramsey, C., & Williams, T. (2000). Stories of life transition: Subjective well-being and ego development in parents of children with Down Syndrome. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 509–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L., & Hersh, R. H. (1977). Moral development: A review of the theory. Theory into Practice, 16(2), 53–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koltko-Rivera, M. E. (2006). Rediscovering the later version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Self-transcendence and opportunities for theory, research, and unification. Review of general psychology, 10(4), 302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krettenauer, T. (2011). The issue of highest stages in structural-developmental theories. In A. H. Pfaffenberger, P. W. Marko, & A. Combs (Eds.), The Postconventional Personality: Assessing, researching, and theorizing higher development. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, J., & Green, K. E. (2004). The convergence of self, ego, and identity during late adolescence: A Rasch analysis. Paper presented at the Society for Research on Adolescence meeting, Baltimore, MD.

  • Lahey, L., Souvaine, E., Kegan, R., Goodman, R., & Felix, S. (1988). A guide to the subject-object interview: Its administration and analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Graduate School of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, M. R., Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., & Shiraishi, R. W. (2005). Self-transcendence: Conceptualization and measurement. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 60(2), 127–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J. (1966). The meaning and measurement of ego development. American Psychologist, 21(3), 195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., & Dyrenforth, P. S. (2006). Does the existence of social relationships matter for subjective well-being? In K. D. Vohs & E. J. Finkel (Eds.), Self and relationships: Connecting intrapersonal and interpersonal processes (pp. 254–273). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1983). Psychological maturity and subjective well-being: Toward a new synthesis. Developmental Psychology, 19, 243–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mogilner, C., Kamvar, S. D., & Aaker, J. (2011). The shifting meaning of happiness. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(4), 395–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S., Graham, J., Kesebir, S., & Galinha, I. C. (2013). Concepts of happiness across time and cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(5), 559–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orzech, K. M., Shapiro, S. L., Brown, K. W., & McKay, M. (2009). Intensive mindfulness training-related changes in cognitive and emotional experience. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(3), 212–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1948). The moral judgment of the child. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures. New York: Viking.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, B. W., & Helson, R. (1997). Changes in culture, changes in personality: The influence of individualism in a longitudinal study of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (1996). Psychological well-being: Meaning, measurement, and implications for psychotherapy research. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 65(1), 14–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 13–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., Urry, H. L., Muller, D., Rosenkranz, M. A., Friedman, E. M., Davidson, R. J., et al. (2006). Psychological well-being and ill-being: Do they have distinct or mirrored biological correlates? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 75(2), 85–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (2001). Getting older, getting better? Personal strivings and personality development across the life-course. Developmental Psychology, 37, 491–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). Is it possible to become happier? (And if so, how?). Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1(1), 129–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stubbe, J. H., De Moor, M. H. M., Boomsma, D. I., & de Geus, E. J. C. (2007). The association between exercise participation and well-being: A co-twin study. Preventive Medicine, 44(2), 148–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: A eudaimonist’s perspective. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(4), 234–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wayment, H. A., & Bauer, J. J. (2008). Transcending self-interest: Psychological explorations of the quiet ego. American Psychological Association.

  • Wayment, H. A., Wiist, B., Sullivan, B. M., & Warren, M. A. (2011). Doing and being: Mindfulness, health, and quiet ego characteristics among Buddhist practitioners. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(4), 575–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, P. T. (2016). Self-transcendence: A paradoxical way to become your best. International Journal of Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6(1), 9.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Robert Kegan for providing feedback and expertise throughout the process, Dane Hewlett for his extensive support in the recruitment phase, Deborah Helsing, Margaret Ruff, and H’Sien Hayward for theory-building and scoring contributions, and lastly, to the study participants and anonymous reviewers for giving their time and thoughtful efforts.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Harvard Extension School, 51 Brattle St, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA

    Andres Fossas

  2. Back to Human, Eerikinkatu 7, 20100, Turku, Finland

    Andres Fossas

Authors
  1. Andres Fossas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andres Fossas.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The author declares that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Fossas, A. Psychological Maturity Predicts Different Forms of Happiness. J Happiness Stud 20, 1933–1952 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0033-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0033-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation