Skip to main content

Work Locus of Control, Motivational Regulation, Employee Work Passion, and Work Intentions: An Empirical Investigation of an Appraisal Model

Journal of Happiness Studies volume 19, pages 231–256 (2018)Cite this article

Abstract

In accordance with appraisal theory, relationships among four psychological constructs within an individual are examined: work-specific locus of control, motivational regulation, work passion, and work intentions. A survey was administered electronically to a database of working professionals, and 2654 responses were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Locus of control variables were significantly related to all three forms of motivational regulation in employees. Three of the five possible relationships between forms of motivational regulation and work passion variables were found to be significant, in part supporting the importance of autonomous regulation to both harmonious passion and obsessive passion in the employee appraisal process. Partial mediation testing indicated that internal locus of control directly contributed somewhat to harmonious passion, and the same was found to be true for external locus of control and obsessive passion. Both work passion variables predicted work intentions, but stronger relationships were found between harmonious passion and work intentions. Findings and practical implications are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht, S. L. (2010). Handbook of employee engagement: perspectives, issues, research and practice. Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi, R. P. (1992). The self-regulation of attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly, 55, 178–204. doi:10.2307/2786945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bing, M. N., Whanger, J. C., Davison, H. K., & VanHook, J. B. (2004). Incremental validity of the frame-of-reference effect impersonality scale scores: A replication and extension. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 150–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonneville-Roussy, A., Vallerand, R. J., & Bouffard, T. (2013). The roles of autonomy support harmonious and obsessive passion in educational persistence. Learning and Individual Differences, 24, 22–31. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chau, H., & Hocevar, D. (1995, April). The effects of number of measured variables on goodness-of-fit in confirmatory factor analysis. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.

  • Curran, T., Hill, E. P., Appleton, P. R., Vallerand, R. J., & Standage, M. (2015). The psychology of passion: A meta-analytic review of a decade of research on intrapersonal outcomes. Motivation and Emotion, 39, 231–655. doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9503-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985a). The general causality orientation scale: Self-determination and personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 109–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985b). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14–23. doi:10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deng, H., Guan, Y., Bond, M. H., Zhang, Z., & Hu, T. (2011). The interplay between social cynicism beliefs and person-organization fit on work-related attitudes among Chinese employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 41, 160–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy, R. D., & Lent, R. W. (2009). Test of the social cognitive model of work satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 75, 212–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fan, X., Thompson, B., & Wang, L. (1999). Effects of sample size, estimation methods, and model specification on structural equation modeling fit indexes. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 56–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, E. (1993). Rotter’s locus of control scale: A 10 item 2 factor model. Psychological Reports, 73, 1267–1278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S. (1984). Personal control and stress and coping processes: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 839–852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forest, J., Mageau, G. A., Sarrazin, C., & Morin, E. M. (2011). “Work is my passion”: The different affective, behavioral, and cognitive consequences of harmonious and obsessive passion toward work. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 28, 27–40. doi:10.1002/CJAS.170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fugate, M., Harrison, S., & Kinicki, A. J. (2011). Thoughts and feelings about organizational change: A field test of appraisal theory. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 18, 421–437. doi:10.1177/1548051811416510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Steele, H. (1993). Measuring locus of control: A critique of general, children’s, health- and work-related locus of control questionnaires. British Journal of Psychology, 84, 443–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagne, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331–362. doi:10.1002/job.322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagne, M., Forest, J., Gilbert, M.-H., Aube, C., Morin, E., & Malorni, A. (2010). The Motivation at Work Scale: Validation evidence in two languages. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70, 628–646. doi:10.1177/0013164409355698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gousse-Lessard, A. S., Vallerand, R. J., Carbonneau, N., & Lafreniere, M. K. (2013). the role of passion in mainstream and radical behaviors: A look at environmental activism. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 35, 18–29. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.03.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grebner, S., Semmer, K., & Elfering, A. (2005). Working conditions and three types of well-being: A longitudinal study with self-report and rating data. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(1), 31–43. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.10.1.31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, H., & Beckmann, J. (1990). Intentional action and action slips. Psychological Review, 97, 36–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, V. T., Wong, S., & Lee, C. H. (2011). A tale of passion: Linking job passion and cognitive engagement to employee work performance. Journal of Management Studies, 48, 26–47. doi:10.111/j.1467-6486.2009.00878.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holtz, B. C., Ployhart, R. E., & Dominguez, A. (2005). Testing the rules of justice: The effects of frame-of-reference and pre-test validity information on personality test responses and test perceptions. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13, 75–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to under parameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., Bentler, P. M., & Kano, Y. (1992). Can test statistics in covariance structure analysis be trusted? Psychological Bulletin, 112, 351–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, L. A., & James, L. R. (1989). Integrating work environment perceptions: explorations into the measurement of learning. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 739–751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kemery, E. R., & Dunlap, W. P. (1986). Partialling factor scores does not control method variance: A reply to Podsakoff and Tudor. Journal of Management, 12, 525–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D. A., & McCoach, D. B. (2003). Effect on the number of variables on measures of fit in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10, 333–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kormanik, M. B., & Rocco, T. S. (2009). Internal versus external control of reinforcement: A review of the locus of construct. Human Resource Development Review, 8, 463–483. doi:10.1177/1534484309342080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58, 281–342. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1982). Thoughts on the relations between emotion and cognition. American Psychologist, 37, 1019–1024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991a). Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 352–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991b). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lent, R. W. (2004). Toward a unifying theoretical and practical perspective on well-being and psychological adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 42–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, K., Bond, M. H., de Carrasquel, S. R., Munoz, C., Hernandez, M., Murakami, F., et al. (2002). Social axioms: The search for universal dimensions of general beliefs about how the world functions. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 286–302. doi:10.1177/0022022102033003005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, H. (1981). Differentiating among internality, powerful others, and chance. In H. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct (Vol. 1, pp. 15–63). New York: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lindell, M. K., & Whitney, D. J. (2001). Accounting for common method variance in cross-sectional research designs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 114–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, R. G., & Kernan, M. C. (1987). Scripts as determinants of goal commitment. Academy of Management Review, 12, 265–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mageau, G. A., Vallerand, R. J., Rousseau, F. L., Ratelle, C. F., & Provencher, P. J. (2005). Passion and gambling: Investigating the divergent affective and cognitive consequences of gambling. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 100–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. (1997). Self-schema and processing information about self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Hau, K., & Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in over generalizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 11, 320–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahan, E. A., & Estes, D. (2011). Measuring lay concepts of well-being: The beliefs about well-being scale. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12, 267–287. doi:10.1007/s10902-010-9194-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. D., Gagne, M., & Parfyonova, N. M. (2010). Toward an evidence-based model of engagement: What we can learn from motivation and commitment research. In S. Albrecht (Ed.), Handbook of employee engagement: Perspectives, issues, research and practice (pp. 62–73). Northampton: Edward Elgar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ng, T. W. H., Sorensen, K. L., & Eby, L. T. (2006). Locus of control at work: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 1057–1087. doi:10.1002/job.416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, J. E., Jose, P. E., & Brough, P. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis of the work locus of control scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66, 835–851. doi:10.1177/0013164405285544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Page, K. M., & Velle-Brodrick, D. Eight. (2009). The ‘What’, ‘Why’ and ‘How’ of employee well-being: A model. Social Indicators Research, 90, 441–458. doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9270-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philippe, F. L., Vallerand, R. J., & Lavigne, G. L. (2009). Passion does make a difference in people’s lives: A look at well-being in passionate and non-passionate individuals. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 1, 3–22. doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2008.01003.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., & Tudor, W. D. (1985). Relationships between leader reward and punishment behavior and group processes and productivity. Journal of Management, 11, 55–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, T. P., & Zigarmi, D. (2014). The impact of dispositional cynicism on job-specific affect and work intentions. International Journal of Psychology, 49, 381–389. doi:10.1002/ijop.12051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80, 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, F. L., Vallerand, R. J., Ratelle, C. F., Mageau, G. A., & Provencher, T. J. (2002). Passion and gambling: On the validation of the gambling passion scale (GPS). Journal of Gambling Studies, 18, 45–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Chandler, C., Connell, J. K., & Deci, E. L. (1983, April). Internalization and motivation: Some preliminary research and theoretical speculations. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society of Research in Child Development, Detroit, MI.

  • Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Connell, J. P., & Deci, E. L. (1985). A motivational analysis of self-determination and self-regulation in education. In C. Ames & R. E. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation and education: The classroom milieu (pp. 13–51). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, M. R., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of extrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryon, H. S., & Gleason, M. E. J. (2014). The role of locus of control in daily life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 121–131. doi:10.1177/0146167213507080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaufeli, W. B., Taris, T. W., & van Rhenen, W. (2008). Workaholism, burnout, and work engagement: Three of a kind or three different kinds of employee well-being? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57(2), 173–203. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00285.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schimmack, U., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. (2008). The influence of environment and personality on the affective and cognitive component of subjective well-being. Social Indicator Research, 89, 41–60. doi:10.1007/s11205-007-9230-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Séguin-Lévesque, C., Laliberté, M. L., Pelletier, L. G., Blanchard, C., & Vallerand, R. J. (2003). Harmonious and obsessive passion for the Internet: Their associations with couples’ relationships. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 197–221. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb02079.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, J. A., & Postlethwaite, D. E. (2012). A matter of context: A meta-analytic investigation of the relative validity of contextualized and non-contextualized personality measures. Personnel Psychology, 65, 245–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2005). The interplay between goal intentions and implementation intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 87–98. doi:10.1177/0146167204271308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shuck, B., Ghosh, R., Zigarmi, D., & Nimon, K. (2013). The jingle jangle of employee engagement: Further exploration of the emerging construct and implications for workplace learning and performance. Human Resource Development Review, 12, 11–35. doi:10.1177/1534484312463921.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shuck, B., Zigarmi, D., & Owen, J. (2015). Psychological needs, engagement, and work intentions: A Bayesian multi-measurement mediation approach and implications for HRD. European Journal of Training and Development, 39(1), 2–21. doi:10.1108/ETD-08-2014-0061.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spector, P. E. (1982). Behavior in organizations as a function of employee locus of control. Psychological Bulletin, 91(3), 482–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spector, P. E. (1988). Development of the work locus of control scale. Journal of Operational Psychology, 61, 335–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tzeng, O. C. (1975). Differentiation of affective and denotative meaning systems and their influence on personality ratings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 978–988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory: A view from the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 312–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J. (2008). On the psychology of passion: In search of what makes people’s lives most worth living. Canadian Psychology, 49, 1–13. doi:10.1037/0708-5591.49.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J. (2015). The psychology of passion: A dualistic model. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., & Bissonnette, R. (1992). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational styles as predictors of behavior: A prospective study. Journal of Personality, 60, 599–620. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.ep9209210978.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Leonard, M., et al. (2003). Les Passions de l’ame: On obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 756–767. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.756.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J., Houlfort, N., & Forest, J. (2014). Passion for work: Determinants and outcomes. In M. Gagne (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory (pp. 85–105). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q., Bowling, N. A., & Eschleman, K. J. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of work and general locus of control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 761–768. doi:10.1037/a0017707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, L. J., Hartman, N., & Cavazotte, F. (2010). Method variance and marker variables: A review and comprehensive CFA marker technique. Organizational Research Methods, 13, 477–514. doi:10.1177/1094428110366036.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wofford, J. C., & Goodwin, V. Al. (1990). Effects of feedback a cognitive processing and choice of decision style. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 603–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wofford, J. C., Goodwin, V. Al., & Whittington, J. Al. (1998). A field study of a cognitive approach to understanding transformational and transactional leadership (pp. 55–84). Nine: Leadership Quarterly.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zigarmi, D., & Nimon, K. (2011). A cognitive approach to work intention: The stuff that employee work passion is made of? Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13, 447–461. doi:10.1177/1523422311431152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zigarmi, D., Nimon, K., Houson, D., Witt, D., & Diehl, J. (2009). Beyond engagement: Toward a framework and operational definition of employee work passion. Human Resource Development Journal, 8, 300–326. doi:10.1177/1534484309338171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zigarmi, D., Nimon, K., Houson, D., Witt, D., & Diehl, J. (2011). A preliminary field test of an employee work passion model. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22, 195–221. doi:10.1002/hrdq.20076.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zigarmi, D., Nimon, K., Houson, D., Witt, D., & Diehl, J. (2012). The work intention inventory: Initial evidence of construct validity. Journal of Business Administration Research, 1, 24–42. doi:10.5430/jbar.v1n1p24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Ken Blanchard Companies and the University of San Diego, 125 State Pl., Escondido, CA, 92029, USA

    Drea Zigarmi

  2. University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, MRH-275H, San Diego, CA, 92110-2492, USA

    Fred J. Galloway

  3. Valencore Consulting, 1455 Frazee Rd., Suite 500, San Diego, CA, 92108, USA

    Taylor Peyton Roberts

Authors
  1. Drea Zigarmi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fred J. Galloway
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Taylor Peyton Roberts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Taylor Peyton Roberts.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zigarmi, D., Galloway, F.J. & Roberts, T.P. Work Locus of Control, Motivational Regulation, Employee Work Passion, and Work Intentions: An Empirical Investigation of an Appraisal Model. J Happiness Stud 19, 231–256 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9813-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9813-2

Keywords

  • Work locus of control
  • Motivational outlook
  • Work passion
  • Work intentions
  • Appraisal theory