Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Be Happy: The Role of Resilience Between Characteristic Affect and Symptoms of Depression

Journal of Happiness Studies volume 15, pages 1125–1138 (2014)Cite this article

Abstract

Characteristic affect may influence the development of resilience. Higher levels of resilience may in turn decrease the likelihood of individuals developing symptoms of depression. All first year psychology students (N = 217) were recruited in this longitudinal study to examine whether resilience mediates the relationship between characteristic affect and symptoms of depression. One hundred and seven students completed survey measures at the start of a semester and again 3 months later. Results indicated that greater negative affect predicted worsening of depressive symptoms over 3 months, while greater positive affect predicted a lessening of depressive symptoms over 3 months. Resilience fully mediated the effects of positive affect on change in depression and partly mediated the effects of negative affect on change in depression. These results are interpreted in the context of a hierarchical model of affect and the Broaden and Build Theory, which may explain how resilience arises from positive affect and mediates between affect and symptoms of depression over time.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Science, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beasley, M., Thompson, T., & Davidson, J. (2003). Resilience in response to life stress: The effects of coping style and cognitive hardiness. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 77–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berndt, D. (1990). Inventories and scales. In B. Wolman & G. Stricker (Eds.), Depressive disorders, facts, theories, and treatment methods (pp. 255–274). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, J. (2002). Personality as an affect-processing system. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Development of cognition, affect, and social relations: The Minnesota symposia on child psychology (vol. 13, p. 48). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, J., & Kreman, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A., Papa, A., O’Neil, K., Westphal, M., & Coifman, K. (2004a). The importance of being flexible: The ability to enhance and suppress emotional expression predicts long-term adjustment. Psychological Science, 15, 482–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A., Wortman, C. B., & Nesse, R. M. (2004b). Prospective patterns of resilience and maladjustment during widowhood. Psychology and Aging, 19, 260–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, F. B. (2003). Savouring beliefs inventory (SBI): A scale for measuring beliefs about savouring. Journal of Mental Health, 12, 175–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, A. B., Brown, J. S., Sachs-Ericsson, N., Plant, E. A., Curtis, J. T., Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. E. (2008). Upward spiral of positive emotion and coping: Replication, extension, and initial explanation of neurochemical substrates. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 360–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell-Sills, L., Cohan, S. L., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Relationship of resilience to personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 585–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (2003). Pleasure as a sign you can attend to something else: Placing positive feelings within a general model of affect. Cognition and Emotion, 17, 241–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Kamarak, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 24, 385–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, M. A., Frederickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., & Conway, A. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building reserves. Emotion, 9, 361–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In M. Lewis & J. M. H. Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 91–115). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, J. R., & Henry, J. D. (2004). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): Construct validity, measurement, properties, and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 245–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1984). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1105–1111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duke University. (2005). iPod first year experience final evaluation report. Retrieve May 6, 2013 from http://cit.duke.edu/pdf/reports/ipod_initiative_04_05.pdf.

  • Eisenberg, D., Gollust, S. E., Golberstein, E., & Hefner, J. L. (2007). Prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety and suicidality among university students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 534–542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, G. C., Joormann, J., & Johnson, S. L. (2008). Responses to positive affect: A self-report measure of rumination and dampening. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 507–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Florian, V., Mikulincer, M., & Taubman, O. (1995). Does hardiness contribute to mental health during a stressful real-life situation? The roles of appraisal and coping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 687–695.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). The value of positive emotions: The emerging science of positive psychology is coming to understand why it’s good to feel good. American Scientist, 91, 330–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. A. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought–action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 313–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Cohn, M. A. (2008). Positive emotions. In M. Lewis, J. Haviland, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 777–796). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1045–1062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13, 172–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Levenson, R. W. (1998). Positive emotions speed recovery from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 191–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Losada, M. F. (2005). Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing. American Psychologist, 60, 678–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What good are positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotion following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Martinussen, M. (2003). A new rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12, 65–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gall, T., Evans, D., & Bellerose, S. (2000). Transition to first year university: Patterns of change and adjustment across life domains and time. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 544–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hemenover, S. H. (2003). Individual differences in rate of affect change: Studies in affective chronometry. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 121–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122–1131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, N. S., & Gortner, E. T. (2000). Can depression be de-medicalized in the 21st century: Scientific revolutions, counter-revolutions, and the magnetic field of normal science. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 103–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, R., Krause, K., & Jennings, C. (2010). The first year experience in Australian universities: Findings from 1994-2009. Melbourne: CSHE. (ISBN: 9780734041661).

  • Klohnen, E. C. (1996). Conceptual analysis and measurement of the construct of ego-resiliency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1067–1079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konduri, N., Gupchup, G. V., Borrego, M. E., & Worley-Ouis, M. (2006). Assessment of the reliability and validity of a stress questionnaire for pharmacy administration graduate students. College Student. Journal, 40, 78–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larose, S., Bernier, A., & Tarabulsy, G. M. (2005). Attachment state of mind, learning dispositions, and academic performance during the college transition. Developmental Psychology, 41, 281–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, R. J., & Prizmic, Z. (2004). Affect regulation. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 40–61). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Letzring, T. D., Block, J., & Funder, D. C. (2005). Ego-control and ego-resiliency: Generalization of self-report scales based on personality descriptions from self, acquaintances, and clinicians. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 395–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857–885.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 7, 543–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A. (2002). Motivation and academic resilience: Developing a model for student enhancement. Australian Journal of Education, 46, 34–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Min’er, H., & Dejun, G. (2001). Emotion regulation and depression of college students. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 15, 438–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, R., & O’Conner, R. C. (2005). Predicting psychological distress in college students: The role of rumination and stress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 447–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple meditation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 36, 717–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E., Andrews, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Hops, H. (1990). Assessment of depression in adolescents using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Psychological Assessment, 2, 122–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1991). Essentials of behavioural research: Methods and data analysis (2nd ed.). Boston, US: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1999). Resilience concepts and findings: Implications for family therapy. Journal of Family Therapy, 21, 119–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). Positive Psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 61, 774–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherina, M. S., Rampal, L., & Kaneson, N. (2004). Psychological stress among undergraduate medical students. Medical Journal of Malaysia, 59, 207–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioural Medicine, 15, 194–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stallman, H. M. (2010). Psychological distress in university students: A comparison with general population data. Australian Psychologist, 45, 286–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stallman, H. M. (2011). Embedding resilience within the tertiary curriculum: A feasibility study. Higher Education Research and Development, 30, 121–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stallman, H. (2012). A qualitative evaluation of perceptions of the role of competition in the success and distress of law students. Higher Education Research and Development, 31, 891–904.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Emotions: Positive emotions and health. In N. Anderson (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of health and behavior (pp. 306–310). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2007). Regulation of positive emotions: Emotion regulation strategies that promote resilience. Journal of Happiness Studies: Special Issue on Emotion Self-Regulation, 8, 311–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Urquhart, B., & Pooley, J. A. (2007). The transition experience of Australian students to resilience and adjustment: The importance of social support. The Australian Community Psychologist, 19, 78–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagnild, G. (2009). A review of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 17, 105–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 2, 165–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1992). Affects separable and inseparable: On the hierarchical arrangement of the negative effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 489–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., O’Hara, M., & Stuart, S. (2008). Hierarchical structures of affect and psychopathology and their implications for the classification of emotional disorders. Depression and Anxiety, 25, 282–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waugh, C. E., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). Nice to know you: Positive emotions, self-other overlap, and complex understanding in the formation of new relationships. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 93–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waugh, C. E., Fredrickson, B. L., & Taylor, S. F. (2008). Adapting to life’s slings and arrows: Individual differences in resilience when recovering from an anticipated threat. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1031–1046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E. (1985). Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 81–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience, and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. V., Heimpel, S. A., & Michela, J. L. (2003). Savoring versus dampening Self esteem differences in regulating positive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 566–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation. (2008). The Global Burden of Disease: 2004 Update. Geneva: Switzerland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, H. C. (2011). The protective effects of resilience and hope on quality of life of the families coping with the criminal traumatisation of one of its members. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 20, 1906–1915.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zautra, A. J., Hall, J. S., & Murray, K. E. (2010). Resilience: A new definition of health for people and communities. In J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra, & J. S. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of adult resilience (pp. 3–34). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zich, J. M., Attkisson, C. C., & Greenfield, T. K. (1990). Screening for depression in primary care clinics: the CES-D and the BDI. International Journal of Psychiatry Medicine, 20, 259–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Computing, School of Psychology and Social Science, Health and Science, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA, 6027, Australia

    Jennifer M. I. Loh

  2. University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia

    Nicola S. Schutte & Einar B. Thorsteinsson

Authors
  1. Jennifer M. I. Loh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nicola S. Schutte
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Einar B. Thorsteinsson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jennifer M. I. Loh.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Loh, J.M.I., Schutte, N.S. & Thorsteinsson, E.B. Be Happy: The Role of Resilience Between Characteristic Affect and Symptoms of Depression. J Happiness Stud 15, 1125–1138 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9467-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9467-2

Keywords

search

Navigation