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Searching for Happiness: The Importance of Social Capital

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Abstract

After four decades of research, scholars of happiness continue to debate its causes. While it is generally agreed that a combination of internal and external factors play a role, predicting happiness well remains a challenge. Recent research has proposed that social capital may be a vital factor that has been overlooked. This paper attempts to address that omission. According to Coleman’s (1988) seminal work, three dimensions of social capital exist: (1) trust and obligations, (2) information channels, and (3) norms and sanctions. Using bootstrap hierarchical regression on data from the Canadian General Social Survey of Social Engagement Cycle 17 (2003), we identified blocks of social capital variables described by Coleman, as well as an additional factor of belongingness. Even after controlling for major demographic and individual characteristics, the majority of these blocks show significant relationships with happiness. Our findings support social capital as an important piece in predicting happiness.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Christopher T. Carlyle and Timothy G. A. McLean for capable research assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Policy Studies, Mount Royal University, Calgary, AB, Canada

    Ambrose Leung

  2. Psychology Centre, Athabasca University, Athabasca, AB, Canada

    Cheryl Kier

  3. Information Technologies, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada

    Tak Fung

  4. Statcomp Consulting Services Ltd., Calgary, AB, Canada

    Linda Fung

  5. Department of Economics, Bishop’s University, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada

    Robert Sproule

Authors
  1. Ambrose Leung
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  2. Cheryl Kier
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  3. Tak Fung
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  4. Linda Fung
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  5. Robert Sproule
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ambrose Leung.

Additional information

The authors Ambrose Leung and Cheryl Kier contributed equally to the conceptualization and write-up of the project.

Appendices

Appendix A: Description of Variables

1.1 Dependent Variable

1.1.1 Happiness

1:

very unhappy

2:

somewhat unhappy

3:

no opinion

4:

somewhat happy

5:

very happy

1.2 Control Variables

1.2.1 Age

1:

15 to 17

2:

18 to 19

3:

20 to 24

4:

25 to 29

5:

30 to 34

6:

35 to 29

7:

40 to 44

8:

45 to 49

9:

0 to 54

10:

55 to 59

11:

60 to 64

12:

65 to 60

13:

70 to 74

14:

75 to 79

15:

80 years and over

1.2.2 Male

1:

male

0:

female

1.2.3 Married

1:

married or living common law

0:

otherwise

1.2.4 Atlantic

1:

living in Atlantic

0:

otherwise

1.2.5 Quebec

1:

living in Quebec

0:

otherwise

1.2.6 Ontario

1:

living in Ontario

0:

otherwise

1.2.7 Prairie

1:

living in Prairie

0:

otherwise

1.2.8 Health

In general, would you say your health is…?

1:

poor

2:

fair

3:

good

4:

very good

5:

excellent

1.2.9 Income

Annual personal income of the respondent

1:

no income

2:

less than $5,000

3:

$5,000 to $9,999

4:

$10,000 to $14,999

5:

$15,000 to $19,999

6:

$20,000 to $29,999

7:

$30,000 to $39,999

8:

$40,000 to $49,999

9:

$50,000 to $59,999

10:

$60,000 to $79,999

11:

$80,000 to $99,999

12:

$100,000 or more

1.2.10 Unemployed

Unemployed at any time in the past 12 months?

1:

yes

0:

no

 

  • Mastery_scale

    A 28-point ascending scale to indicate the amount of control over life as perceived by the respondent

1.3 Social Trust

How much do you trust each of the following group of people?

People in your family

People in your neighbourhood

Strangers

1:

cannot be trusted at all

2:

 

3:

 

4:

 

5:

can be trusted a lot

1.4 Institutional Trust

How much confidence do you have in:

  • …the police?

  • …the health care system?

  • …banks?

  • …local merchants and business people?

 

1:

No confidence at all

2:

Not very much confidence

3:

Quite a lot of confidence

4:

A great deal of confidence

1.5 Obligations: Help Received

In the past month did anyone help you:

  • by doing domestic work, home maintenance or outdoor work?

  • by providing transportation or running errands?

  • by helping with child care?

  • by teaching, coaching or giving you practical advice?

  • by giving you emotional support?

  • by helping you in some other way?

1.6 Obligations: Help Given

In the past month did you help anyone:

  • by doing domestic work, home maintenance or outdoor work?

  • by providing transportation or running errands?

  • by helping with child care?

  • by teaching, coaching or giving you practical advice?

  • by giving someone emotional support?

  • by helping a person in some other way?

  • did you do unpaid volunteer work for any organization?

  • did you donate money or goods to any organization or charity?

 

1:

yes

2:

no

1.7 Information Channels: Relatives

 

  • In the last month, how often did you see relatives (outside of people you live with)?

  • In the last month, did you communicate with relatives by telephone?

 

1:

not in the last month

2:

once a month

3:

a few time a month

4:

a few times a week

5:

every day

How many relatives do you feel close to?

1:

1 or 2

2:

3 to 5

3:

6 to 10

4:

11 to 20

5:

more than 20

1.8 Information Channels: Friends

 

  • How many close friends do you have?

  • How may other friends do you have who are not relatives or close friends?

 

1:

1 or 2

2:

3 to 5

3:

6 to 10

4:

11 to 20

5:

more than 20

 

  • In the last month, how often did you see your friends?

  • In the last month, how often did you communicate with your friends by telephone?

 

1:

not in the last month

2:

once a month

3:

a few time a month

4:

a few times a week

5:

every day

1.9 Information Channels: Political Participation

In the past 12 months, have you done any of the following activities:

  • …searched for information on a political issue?

  • …volunteered for a political party?

  • …expressed your views on an issue by contacting a newspaper or a politician?

  • …signed a petition?

  • …boycotted a product or chose a product for ethical reasons?

  • …attended a public meeting?

  • …participated in a demonstration or March?

 

1:

yes

2:

no

1.10 Information Channels: Civic Participation

In the past 12 months, were you a member or participant in:

  • a union or professional association?

  • a political party or group?

  • a sports or recreation organization (such as hockey league, health club, golf club)?

  • a cultural, education or hobby organization (such as theatre group, book club, or bridge club)?

  • a religious-affiliated group (such as church youth group, choir)?

  • a school group, neighbourhood, civic or community association (such as PTA, alumni, block parents, neighbourhood watch)?

  • a service club or fraternal organization (such as Kiwanis, Knights of Columbus, the Legion)?

  • any other type of organization that you have not mentioned?

 

1:

yes

0:

no

1.11 Norms and Sanctions

How safe do you feel from crime walking alone in your area after dark?

1:

very unsafe

2:

somewhat unsafe

3:

reasonably safe

4:

does not walk alone

5:

very safe

When alone in your home in the evening or at night, do you feel:

1:

very worried

2:

somewhat worried

3:

never alone

4:

not at all worried

If you lost a wallet or purse that contained two hundred dollars, how likely is it to be returned with the money in it if it was found:

  • by someone who lives close by?

  • by a complete stranger?

 

1:

not at all likely

2:

don’t know

3:

somewhat likely

4:

very likely

1.12 Belongingness

How would you describe your sense of belonging to:

  • …your local community?

  • …your province?

  • …Canada?

 

1:

very weak

2:

somewhat weak

3:

don’t know

4:

somewhat strong

5:

very strong

Appendix B: Coefficients and Standard Errors of Bootstrap Hierarchical Regression Model

Table 3
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Leung, A., Kier, C., Fung, T. et al. Searching for Happiness: The Importance of Social Capital. J Happiness Stud 12, 443–462 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-010-9208-8

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