Abstract
This paper explores the spatial and residential impact of social-mix and urban renewal policies in large French social housing estates. Tenure diversification is one of the drivers of a privatization process that is leading to an increase in private housing, especially home ownership developments. The wholesale urban restructuring of the modernist conception of high-rise buildings and open public spaces of the 1960s provides another vector. Analyzing the implementation of these two national strategies at large housing estate micro level—partly at La Duchère housing complex in Lyon—sheds light on how the design and location of new housing developments results in fragmentation of “residences” and space. To a certain extent, these social-mix policies exacerbate internal socio-residential differentiation by simply “displacing the stigma”. What is new is rescaling at the level of small “residences” and gating of housing more than the segmentation process itself, which already existed in large housing estates. At the micro-level of large housing estates, this challenges the standardization of urban and social practices through design, the “residualization” of social housing and public space as well as the public management of fragmented space. In a broader context, these changes show how the recent shift in the French social housing model has been embodied in spatial reconfiguration.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
We use the terms “large housing estates” or “large housing complexes” as a translation of the French term “grands ensembles”, referring mainly to rental social housing built on a massive scale in the 1960s.
"Residual" and "residualization" are concepts developed by UK researchers concerning the neo-liberal policy of reducing the number of social housing units (mainly by selling) and allocating them for the lowest income groups.
In 2014, the urban policy framework shifted to re-establishing large “city contracts” with 3 main focuses: “social cohesion”, “economic development and employment” and “living environment and urban renewal” in 1300 priority neighbourhoods selected based on their poverty rate. Within these more integrated policies, The New Urban Renewal Programme is deployed in 400 of these “priority neighbourhoods”. Large housing estates are part of these poor neighbourhoods and comprise one of the main focuses of urban renewal programmes.
UESL -Action Logement “ The Union of Enterprises for Employees and Housing” manages the employers' financial participation in the construction effort paid by enterprises: the aim is to favor housing access for employees and to participate in the social mix strategy of urban renewal through funding and building private rental housing.
AFL, “Association Foncière Logement” was created in 2002 and is financed by “Action-logement” group. It has a highly specific type of structure and is neither a developer nor a constructor. It participates in social-mixing by producing social rental housing for employees with a long-term aim of using this portfolio to finance retirement pensions.
The National Urban Renewal Agency (ANRU) also includes intermediate rental social housing (PLS) as part of its housing diversification programme, which we have excluded from Table 2 (4.944 social housing units).
Different types of affordable home ownership programs are available as part of a national incentive policy and may be secured through interest-free loans or housing aid, depending on income and family size.
Data extracted from the National Observatory of Priority Neighbourhoods and the project local management (Projet urbain la Duchère, communauté urbaine de Lyon).
In other large housing estates, new private home ownership programs include town houses and, in some cases, individual detached houses.
In 2019, only 10% of all social housing organisations are the required size. The rate of sales has been maintained around 4000 units per year between 1998 and 2009, reaching 8000 units per year from 2012.
References
Arbaci, S., & Rae, I. (2013). Mixed-tenure neighbourhoods in London: Policy myth or effective device to alleviate deprivation? International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37(2), 451–479
Arthurson, K. (2011). Social mix and the city: Challenging the mixed communities consensus in housing and urban planning policies. CSIRO.
Atkinson, R., & Kintrea, K. (2000). Owner-occupation, social mix and neighbourhood impacts. Policy and Politics, 28(1), 93–108
Atkinson, R., Blandy, S., Flint, J., & Lister, D. (2004). Gated Communities in England, New Horizons research series. London: ODPM.
Bacqué, M. H., Fijalkow, Y., Launay, L., & Vermeersch, S. (2011). social mix policies in Paris: Discourses, policies and social Effects. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research., 35(2), 256–273
Ball, J. (2011). Housing disadvantaged people? Insiders and outsiders in French social housing. Routledge.
Balteau, E. (2019). Rénovation urbaine et continuités populaires. Une recherche socio-filmique en ville moyenne. Thèse de doctorat en sociologie, sous la dir. De J. Sebagh, Université Paris-Sacaly/Université d’Evry.
Berland Berthon, A. (2009). La démolition des logements sociaux, Histoire urbaine d’une non-politique publique. Lyon: Editions du Certu.
Blanc, M. (2004). The changing role of the state in French housing policies: A roll-out without roll-back. European Journal of Housing Policy, 4(3), 283–302
Blanc, M. (2010). The impact of social mix policies in France. Housing Studies, 25, 257–272
Blandy, S., & Lister, D. (2005). Gated communities: (Ne)Gating community development ? Housing Studies, 20(2), 287–301
Blessing, A. (2016). Repackaging the poor? Conceptualising neoliberal reforms of social rental housing. Housing Studies, 31(2), 149–172
Bolt, G., Philips, D., & Van Kempen, R. (2010). Housing policy, (de)segregation and social mixing: An international perspective. Housing Studies, 25(2), 129–135
Booth, P. (2005). Partnerships and networks: The governance of urban regeneration in Britain. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 20, 257–269
Bridge, G., Butler, T., & Lees, L. (2012). Mixed communities, gentrification by stealth? Policy Press.
Bromley, R., Tallon, A., & Thomas, C. (2005). City-centre regeneration through residential development: Contributing to sustainability. Urban Studies, 42(13), 2407–2429
Carnegie, A., Norris, M., & Byrne, M. (2018). Tenure mixing to combat public housing stigmatization: External benefits, internal challenges and contextual influences in three Dublin neighbourhoods. Cities, 79, 12–17
Cfgeo (2020). Bilan de la diversification du PNRU. Rapport pour l’ANRU, Agence Nationale pour la Rénovation Urbaine, Paris.
Cole, I., & Green, S. (2010). Neighbourhood social mix: Contrasting experiences in four challenging neighbourhoods. Sheffield Hallam University.
Coleman, A. (1985). Utopia on trial: Vision and reality in planned housing. Shipman.
Deboulet, A., Lelévrier, C. (Eds.), (2014). Rénovations urbaines en Europe, PUR, Rennes.
Doling, J., & Ronald, R. (2010). Home ownership and asset-based welfare. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 25(2), 165–173
Dowling, R., Atkinson, R., & McGuirk, P. (2010). Privatism, privatization and social distinction in master-planned residential estates. Urban Policy and Research, 28(4), 391–410
Doytcheva, M. (2007). Une discrimination positive à la française ? Ethnicité et territoire dans les politiques de la ville. La Découverte.
Driant, J.-C., & Li, M. (2012). The ongoing transformation of social housing finance in France: Towards a self-financing system? International Journal of Housing Policy, 12(1), 89–101
Droste, C., Lelévrier, C., & Wassenberg, F. (2014). Urban regeneration in Dutch, French and German social housing areas. In K. Scanlon, C. Whitehead & M. Fernandez Arrigoitia (Eds.), Social housing in Europe. Wiley Blackwell.
Epstein, R. (2013). La rénovation urbaine. Presses de Science Po.
Forrest, R., & Murie, A. (1991). Selling the welfare state. Routledge.
Friedrichs, J., Galster, G., & Musterd, S. (2003). Neighbourhood effects on social opportunities: The European and American research and policy context. Housing Studies, 18(6), 797–806
Galster, G. (2007). Neighbourhood social mix as a goal of housing policy: A theoretical analysis. International Journal of Housing Policy, 7, 19–43
Gerard, B. (2011). L’évolution de la mixité sociale, enjeu du renouvellement urbain des grands ensembles d’habitation de l’agglomération strasbourgeoise. Géographie, Economie, Société, 13(1), 69–92
Gilbert, P. (2014). Les classes populaires à l’épreuve de la rénovation urbaine. Transformations spatiales et changement social dans une cité HLM. Thèse de doctorat en sociologie, sous la dir. J.Y. Authier, Université Lyon 2.
Gilbert, P. (2009). Social stakes of urban renewal: Recent French housing policy. Building Research and Information, 37, 638–648
Gimat, M., & Gloor, M. (2016). La vente de logements sociaux à des particuliers, modalités et conséquences d’une pratique encore marginale des organismes HLM franciliens. Revue D’economie Régionale Et Urbaine, 3, 527–556
Gimat,M., & Halbert, L. (2018). Le logement social contraint à la rentabilité. Métropolitiques.
Goetz, E. G. (2002). Forced relocation vs. voluntary mobility: The effects of dispersal programmes on households. Housing Studies, 17, 107–123
Goetz, E. G. (2011). Where have all the towers gone ? The Dismantling of public housing in U.S. cities. Journal of Urban Affairs, 33(3), 267–281
Gordon-Lasner, M. (2020). Segregation by design: Race, architecture and the enclosure of the Atlanta apartment. Journal of Urban History., 46(6), 1222–1260
Gosselin, C. (2016). Urban renewal and the “defensible space” model: the growing impact of security issues on the way our cities develop. Métropolitiques, online journal.
Graham, E., Manley, D., Hiscock, R., Boyle, P., & Doherty, J. (2009). Mixing housing tenures: Is it good for social well-being? Urban Studies, 46, 139–165
Grossman, K., Kabisch, N., & Kabisch, S. (2017). Understanding the social development of a post-socialist large housing estate: The case of Leipzig-Grünau in eastern Germany in long term perspective. European Urban and Regional Studies, 24(2), 142–161
Gwyther, G. (2009). The doctrine of social mix in the mobile society: A theoretical perspective. Housing, Theory and Society, 26(2), 143–156
Harloe, M. (1995). The People’s Home? Social rented housing in Europe and America. Blackwell.
Hess, D., Tammaru, T., & Van Ham, M. (2018). Housing estates in Europe: Poverty, ethnic segregation, and policy challenges. Springer International Publishing.
Hickman, P. (2013). “Third places” and social interaction in deprived neighbourhoods in Great Britain. Housing and the Built Environment, 28, 221–236
Houard, N. (2011). Loger l’Europe, le logement social dans tous ses états. Paris: la documentation française.
Jacobs, J. (1961). The death and life of great American cities. Random House.
Jones, C., & Murie, A. (2006). The right to buy: Analysis and evaluation of a housing policy. Blackwell.
Jupp, B. (1999). Living together, community life on mixed-tenure estates. Demos.
Kearns, A., McKee, M. J., Sautkina, E., Cox, J., & Bond, L. (2013). How to mix? Spatial configurations, mode of production and resident perceptions of mixed tenure neighbourhoods. Cities, 35, 397–408
Kemeny, J. (2001). Comparative housing and welfare: Theorising the relationship. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 16(1), 53–70
Van Kempen, R., Dekker, K., Hall, S., & Tosics, I. (Eds.). (2005). Restructuring large housing estates in Europe. The Policy Press.
Kleinhans, R. (2004). Social implications of housing diversification in urban renewal: A review of recent literature. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 19, 367–390
Le Goullon, G. (2014). Les grands ensembles en France. Genèse d’une politique publique, 1945–1962. Paris: CTHS.
Lees, L. (2008). Gentrification and social mixing: Towards an inclusive urban renaissance? Urban Studies, 45, 2449–2470
Lelévrier, C. (2013). Social mix neighbourhood policies and social interaction: the experience of newcomers in three new renewal developments in France. Cities, 35, 409–413.
Lelévrier C. & Noye C., (2012). “La fin des grands ensembles ?”. In Donzelot J. (dir.), A quoi sert la rénovation urbaine. Paris, PUF, 185–221.
Lelévrier, C., & Mélic, T. (2018). Housing estates in the Paris region: impoverishment or social fragmentation? chapter 7. In D. Hess, T. Van Tammaru, & M. Ham (Eds.), Housing estates in Europe: Poverty, ethnic segregation, and Policy Challenges. Springer International Publishing.
Lévy-Vroelant, C. (2013). Everyone should be housed: The French generalist model of social housing at stake. In J. Chen, M. Stephens, & Y. Man (Eds.), The future of public housing. (pp. 215–237). Springer.
Lévy-Vroelant, C. (2014). Contradictory narratives on French social housing: Looking back and looking forward. Housing Studies, 29(4), 485–500
Levy-Vroelant, C. (2007). Urban renewal in France. The European Journal of Social Science Research, 20(2), 109–318
Malpass, P. (2005). Housing and the welfare state: The development of housing policy in Britain. Palgrave MacMillan.
Manley, D., van Ham, M., Bailey, N., Simpson, L., & Maclennan, D. (2013). Neighbourhood effects or neighbourhood based problems? A policy context. Springer.
Mc.Cormick, N., Joseph, N., & Chaskin, R. (2012). The new stigma of relocated public housing residents: Challenges to social identity in mixed-income developments. City and Community, 11(3), 285–308
Mc Guirk, P., & Dowling, R. (2009). Neoliberal privatization? Remaking the public and the private in Sydney’s masterplanned residential estates. Political Geography, 28, 174–185
Murie, A., Knorr-Siedow, T., & Van Kempen, R. (2003). Large housing estates in Europe: General developments and theoretical background. RESTATE Series 1, Urban and Regional Research Centre Utrecht, Utrecht.
Newman, O. (1973). Defensible space. Mac Milan.
Pannerai, P., Castex, J., & Depaule, J. C. (1997). Formes urbaines, de l’îlot à la barre. Eupalinos.
Pannerai, P., & Lange, J. (2000). La restructuration des grands ensembles. Etudes Foncières, 88, 6–10
Priemus, H., & Boelhouwer, P. (1999). Social housing finance in Europe: Trends and opportunity. Urban Studies, 36(4), 633–645
Roberts, M. (2007). Sharing space: Urban design and social mixing in mixed income new communities. Planning Theory and Practice, 8(2), 292–311
Rowlands, R., Musterd, S., & Van Kempen, R. (2009). Mass housing in Europe. Multiple faces of development, change and response. Palgrave Macmillan.
Saint-Macary, E. (2011). Mixité sociale et diversité de l’habitat: L’investissement d’acteurs privés dans les opérations de rénovation urbaine. Thèse de doctorat en urbanisme, sous la dir. C. Lelévrier, UPEM.
Sampson, R. J. (2019). Neighbourhood effects and beyond: Explaining the paradoxes of inequality in the changing American metropolis. Urban Studies, 56, 3–32
Scanlon, K., Whitehead, C., & Arrigoitia, F. M. (Eds.). (2014). Social housing in Europe. Wiley-Blackwell.
Silverman, E., Lupton, R., & Fenton, A. (2005) A good place for children? Attracting and retaining families in inner urban mixed income communities. Coventry: Chartered Institute of Housing.
Slater, T. (2006). The evictions of critical perspectives from gentrification research. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 30(4), 737–757
Slater, T. (2009). Missing Marcuse : on gentrification and displacement. CITY : analysis of urban trends, culture, theory, policy, action., 13(2), 292–311.
Slater, T. (2013). Your life chances affect where you live: A critique of the “Cottage industry” of neighbourhood effects research. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37(2), 367–387
Stephen, M., Elsinga, M., & Knorr-Siedow, T. (2014). The privatization of social housing: Three different pathways? In K. Scanlon, C. Whitehead, & F. Arrigoitia (Eds.), Social housing in Europe. (pp. 389–413). Wiley-Blackwell.
Tammaru, T., Marcińczak, S., Van Ham, M., & Musterd, S. (2016). Socio-economic segregation in European capital cities: East meets west. Routledge.
Taylor, S. P. (2017). Neo-liberalism and the marketization of social housing: A study of four countries. International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research, 36, 50–61
Tomas, F., Blanc, J-N., & Bonilla, M. (2003). Les grands ensembles: Une histoire qui continue. Saint- Etienne: Université de Saint-Etienne.
Tsenkova, S. (2008). Housing policy reforms in post-socialist Europe: Lost in transition. Springer.
Tunstall, R., & Fenton, A. (2006), In the mix, a review of mixed income, mixed tenure and mixed communities: What do we know? Joseph Rowntree Foundation, report.
Turkington, R., Van Kempen, R., & Wassenberg, F. (Eds) (2004). High-Rise Housing in Europe: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Housing and Urban Policy Studies 28. Delft University Press.
USH. (2019). Les Hlm en chiffres. https://www.union-habitat.org.
Van Gent, W. P. C., Musterd, S., & Ostendorf, W. (2009). Disentangling neighbourhood problems: Area-based interventions in Western European cities. Urban Research and Practice, 2, 53–67
Wacquant, L. (2007). Territorial stigmatization in the age of advanced marginality. Thesis Eleven, 91(1), 66–77
Watt, P., & Smets, P. (2017). Social housing and urban renewal, a cross-national perspective. Emerald Publishing.
Wong, T.-C., & Goldblum, C. (2016). Social housing in France, a permanent and multifaceted challenge for public policies. Land Use Policy Journal, 54, 95–102
Acknowledgements
The author thanks Christophe Noyé for sharing figures, Jules Jung for his support on the map and Neil O’Brien for the proofreading.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author has no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lelévrier, C. Privatization of large housing estates in France: towards spatial and residential fragmentation. J Hous and the Built Environ 38, 199–217 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-021-09851-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-021-09851-y