Abstract
The addictive potential of electronic gaming machines (EGMs) is currently explained within a cognitive-behavioural framework. This framework explains that various erroneous cognitions regarding players’ likelihood of winning contribute to persistent EGM gambling behaviour. Related to these cognitions is the pervasive misunderstanding among players regarding the operation of EGMs. However, little research has focussed specifically on player understanding of the theoretical proportion returned to players over the lifetime of a machine; return to player percentage. This study aimed to investigate the extent to which players understand the concept return to player percentage presented in different educative formats. A sample of 112 university students were randomly allocated to one of four conditions pertaining to a different mode of information delivery; infographic, vignette, brochure, or mandated legislation (control). Participants completed post-intervention measures to determine changes in knowledge. As predicted, participants exhibited a lack of understanding of the concept of return to player at baseline. However, contrary to predictions, exposure to any of the experimental conditions did not result in a greater understanding of return to player than controls. The study findings emphasise the difficulty individuals have in understanding complex concepts related to return to player percentages when presented in current formats and content. Treatment and responsible gambling policies need to adopt strategies to effectively improve knowledge of this aspect of the structural characteristics of gaming machines.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Casino Guide. (2019). Slot machine payback statistics. Retrieved February 9, 2019 from https://www.americancasinoguide.com/slot-machine-payback-statistics.html.
Australian Hotels Association. (2014). Responsible gambling code of conduct: February 2012 (version 1). Retrieved July 24, 2017 from https://yarravilleclub.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Responsible-Gambling-code-of-conduct.pdf.
Blaszczynski, A., Collins, P., Fong, D., Ladouceur, R., Nower, L., Shaffer, H. J., et al. (2011). Responsible gambling: General principles and minimal requirements. Journal of Gambling Studies,27(4), 565–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-010-9214-0.
Blaszczynski, A., Ladouceur, R., & Shaffer, H. J. (2004). A science-based framework for responsible gambling: The Reno model. Journal of Gambling Studies,20(3), 301–317. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOGS.0000040281.49444.e2.
Brewer, N. T., Richman, A. R., DeFrank, J. T., Reyna, V. F., & Carey, L. A. (2012). Improving communication of breast cancer recurrence risk. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment,133(2), 553–561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10549-011-1791-9.
Brust-Renck, P. G., Royer, C. E., & Reyna, V. F. (2013). Communicating numerical risk: Human factors that aid understanding in health care. Review of Human Factors and Ergonomics,8(1), 235–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557234X13492980.
Bunge, M., Mühlhauser, I., & Steckelberg, A. (2010). What constitutes evidence-based patient information? Overview of discussed criteria. Patient Education and Counseling,78(3), 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2009.10.029.
Chóliz, M. (2010). Experimental analysis of the game in pathological gamblers: Effect of the immediacy of the reward in slot machines. Journal of Gambling,26(2), 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-009-9156-6.
Clifford, A., Ryan, J., Walsh, C., & McCurtin, A. (2017). What information is used in treatment decision aids? A systematic review of the types of evidence populating health decision aids. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-017-0415-7.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Collins, D., Green, S., d’Ardenne, J., Wardle, H., & Williams, S. (2014). Understanding of return to player messages: Findings from user testing. Report prepared for the Responsible Gambling Trust. London: Responsible Gambling Trust.
Corno, L., & Mandinach, E. B. (1983). The role of cognitive engagement in classroom learning and motivation. Educational Psychologist,18(2), 88–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461528309529266.
Delfabbro, P. (2004). The stubborn logic of regular gamblers: Obstacles and dilemmas in cognitive gambling research. Journal of Gambling Studies,20(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOGS.0000016701.17146.d0.
Delfabbro, P., Lahn, J., & Grabosky, P. (2006). It’s not what you know, but how you use it: Statistical knowledge and adolescent problem gambling. Journal of Gambling,22(2), 179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-006-9009-5.
Dixon, M. J., Fugelsang, J. A., MacLaren, V. V., & Harrigan, K. A. (2013). Gamblers can discriminate “tight” from “loose” electronic gambling machines. International Gambling Studies,13(1), 98–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459795.2012.712151.
Dowling, N., Smith, D., & Thomas, T. (2005). Electronic gaming machines: Are they the ‘crack-cocaine’ of gambling? Addiction,100(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00962.x.
Erickson, S. J., Gerstle, M., & Feldstein, S. W. (2005). Brief interventions and motivational interviewing with children, adolescents, and their parents in pediatric health care settings: A review. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine,159(12), 1173–1180. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.159.12.1173.
Fisher, S., & Griffiths, M. (1995). Current trends in slot machine gambling: Research and policy issues. Journal of Gambling Studies,11(3), 239–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02104791.
Gambling Technologies Association. (2013). Responsible gaming machine play. Retrieved March 27, 2017 from http://gamingta.com/responsible-gaming/.
Gaming Technologies Association. (2017). Australian gaming machines: Player information booklet. Retrieved March 27, 2017 from http://www.gamingta.com/pdf/playerinfo.pdf.
Gambling Technologies Australia. (2018). Responsible gambling videos. Retrieved from http://gamingta.com/vid-test/.
Garcia-Retamero, R., & Cokely, E. T. (2011). Effective communication of risks to young adults: Using message framing and visual aids to increase condom use and STD screening. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied,17(3), 270–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023677.
Garcia-Retamero, R., & Cokely, E. T. (2017). Designing visual aids that promote risk literacy: A systematic review of health research and evidence-based design heuristics. Human Factors: The Journal of Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,59(4), 582–627. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720817690634.
Gigerenzer, G. (1996). The psychology of good judgment: Frequency formats and simple algorithms. Medical Decision Making,16(3), 273–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272989X9601600312.
Griffiths, M. (1999). Gambling technologies: Prospects for problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies,15(3), 265–283. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023053630588.
Harrigan, K. A., & Dixon, M. (2010). Government sanctioned “tight” and “loose” slot machines: How having multiple versions of the same slot machine game may impact problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies,26(1), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-009-9154-8.
Hoffrage, U., Lindsey, S., Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. (2000). Communicating statistical information. Science (New York, N.Y.),290(5500), 2261–2262. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.290.5500.2261.
Hogarth, R. M. (1975). Cognitive processes and the assessment of subjective probability distributions. Journal of the American Statistical Association,70(350), 271–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1975.10479858.
Ilic, D., Jammal, W., Chiarelli, P., Gardiner, R. A., Hughes, S., Stefanovic, D., et al. (2015). Assessing the effectiveness of decision aids for decision making in prostate cancer testing: A systematic review: Decision aids for prostate cancer testing. Psycho-Oncology,24(10), 1303–1315. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.3815.
Lambos, C., & Delfabbro, P. (2007). Numerical reasoning ability and irrational beliefs in problem gambling. International Gambling Studies,7(2), 157–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459790701387428.
Livingstone, C. (2017). How electronic gambling machines work. AGRC discussion paper 8. Melbourne: Australian Gambling Research Centre, Australian Institute of Family Studies.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2002). Animation as an aid to multimedia learning. Educational Psychology Review,14(1), 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013184611077.
Michielutte, R., Bahnson, J., Dignan, M. B., & Schroeder, E. M. (1992). The use of illustrations and narrative text style to improve readability of a health education brochure. Journal of Cancer Education: The Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Education,7(3), 251.
Monaghan, S., Blaszczynski, A., & Nower, L. (2009). Do warning signs on electronic gaming machines influence irrational cognitions? Psychological Reports,105(1), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.105.1.173-187.
O’Connor, A. M., Fiset, V., DeGrasse, C., Graham, I. D., Evans, W., Stacey, D., et al. (1999). Decision aids for patients considering options affecting cancer outcomes: Evidence of efficacy and policy implications. Journal of the National Cancer Institute: Monographs,1999(25), 67–80. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jncimonographs.a024212.
Parke, J., & Griffiths, M. (2006). The psychology of the fruit machine: The role of structural characteristics (revisited). International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction,4(2), 151–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-006-9014-z.
Parke, J., Parke, A., & Blaszczynski, A. (2016). Key issues in product-based harm minimisation: Examining theory, evidence and policy issues relevant in Great Britain. Responsible Gambling Trust. Retrieved July 26, 2017 from http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/26363/1/pbhm-final-report-december-2016.pdf.
Productivity Commission. (2010). Gambling: Productivity commission inquiry report, no 50, 26, February 2010. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.
Satterfield, T., Slovic, P., & Gregory, R. (2000). Narrative valuation in a policy judgment context. Ecological Economics,34(3), 315–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00177-4.
Smith, S. K., Trevena, L., Simpson, J. M., Barratt, A., Nutbeam, D., & McCaffery, K. J. (2010). A decision aid to support informed choices about bowel cancer screening among adults with low education: Randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c5370.
Stacey, D., Légaré, F., Col, N. F., Bennett, C. L., Barry, M. J., Eden, K. B., et al. (2014). Decision aids for people facing health treatment or screening decisions. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001431.pub4.
The Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal. (2005). Gambling: Promoting a culture of responsibility—Consequential report on governance structures. Sydney, Australia.
Thomas, A. C., Sullivan, G. B., & Allen, F. C. L. (2009). A theoretical model of EGM problem gambling: More than a cognitive escape. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction,7(1), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-008-9152-6.
Victorian Commission for Gambling and Liquor Regulation. (2017). Victorian appendix to the Australian/New Zealand gaming machine national standard: March 2017 (version 1.1). Retrieved March 6, 2017 from https://www.vcglr.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/Victorian_Appendix_to_the_Australian_New_Zealand_Gaming_Machine_National%20_Standard_2016.PDF.
Victorian Department of Justice. (2009). Inside the pokies—Player guide. Retrieved from http://www.psych.usyd.edu.au/gambling_treatment_clinic/resources/Inside_the_Pokies.pdf.
Victorian Government Chief Parliamentary Council. (2015). Gambling Regulation Act 2003 No. 114 of 2003 authorised version incorporating amendments as at 19 November 2015 (version 065). Retrieved March 6, 2017 from http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/LTObject_Store/ltobjst9.nsf/DDE300B846EED9C7CA257616000A3571/6ECB524096999A87CA257F01001C0841/$FILE/03-114aa065%20authorised.pdf.
Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation. (2014). Pokies, lotteries, keno: What is return to player? Retrieved March 27, 2017 from https://www.responsiblegambling.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/11912/Fact-Sheet-What-is-return-to-player.pdf.
Walker, M. B., Schellinck, T., & Anjoul, F. (2008). Explaining why people gamble. In M. Zangeneh, A. Blaszczynski, & N. E. Turner (Eds.), In the pursuit of winning: Problem gambling theory, research and treatment (pp. 11–33). New York, NY: Springer.
Wohl, M. J. A., Christie, K.-L., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2010). Animation-based education as a gambling prevention tool: Correcting erroneous cognitions and reducing the frequency of exceeding limits among slots players. Journal of Gambling Studies,26(3), 469–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-009-9155-7.
Wohl, M. J. A., Gainsbury, S., Stewart, M. J., & Sztainert, T. (2013a). Facilitating responsible gambling: The relative effectiveness of education-based animation and monetary limit setting pop-up messages among electronic gaming machine players. Journal of Gambling Studies,29(4), 703–717. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-012-9340-y.
Wohl, M. J. A., Santesso, D. L., & Harrigan, K. (2013b). Reducing erroneous cognitions and the frequency of exceeding limits among slots players: A short (3-minute) educational animation facilitates responsible gambling. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction,11(4), 409–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-012-9424-z.
Zajonc, R. B. (2001). Mere exposure: A gateway to the subliminal. Current Directions in Psychological Science,10(6), 224–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00154.
Funding
For the period 2015–2018, the second author has conducted research funded directly by Australian or international government, or government-related funding agencies, and industry operators. These include Gambling Research Exchange Ontario, ClubsNSW, Dooleys Club Lidcombe, Aristocrat Leisure Industries, Australian Communications Media Authority, Gaming Technologies Association, Gambling Research Australia, Responsible Wagering Australia, Commonwealth Bank, NSW Department of Trade and Investment (NSW Office of Liquor, Gaming and Racing), La Loterie Romande (Switzerland), Camelot (United Kingdom), La Française des Jeux (France), Loto-Quebec (Canada), and National Lottery (Belgium), and the National Association for Gambling Studies. He has received honorariums from Manitoba Gambling Research Program and GambleAware (formerly UK Responsible Gambling Trust) for grant reviews, and royalties from several publishers for books and book chapters. He has also received travel and accommodation expenses from Leagues Clubs, Gambling Research Exchange Ontario, USA National Council on Problem Gambling, Japan Medical Society for Behavioural Addiction, Le Comité d’organisation Congrès international sur les troubles addictifs, Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, North American Association of State and Provincial Lotteries, and New Horizons (British Columbia Lottery Corporation to attend conferences and meetings. All professional dealings have been conducted with the aim of enhancing responsible gambling and harm minimisation policies and practices, training counsellors in the treatment interventions, and advancing our understanding of the psychology of gambling.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
The current study was approved by the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
All participants provided consent to participate in the study in accordance with the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee requirements for the conduct of human research.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Beresford, K., Blaszczynski, A. Return-to-Player Percentage in Gaming Machines: Impact of Informative Materials on Player Understanding. J Gambl Stud 36, 51–67 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-019-09854-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-019-09854-z