Abstract
Purpose
Child sexual abuse (CSA) has short-term and long-term effects on survivors, but distress after the abuse varies widely and not all survivors show a significant degree of distress. Factors contributing to the variations of CSA outcomes need to be further investigated. The present study examines the moderating role of childhood attachment in the relationship between the experience of CSA and adult attachment, psychological distress, and self-esteem.
Methods
Seven hundred and sixty-seven adults participated in this study, of which 427 (55.67%) reported a history of CSA. Participants were recruited from various social media websites (e.g., Facebook, Craigslist, discussion board, university announcement board). To examine the moderating role of childhood attachment between the experience of CSA and adult attachment, we conducted path analysis.
Results
Childhood attachment significantly predicted adult attachment, psychological distress, and self-esteem in adulthood and moderated the relation between CSA and anxious adult attachment; CSA survivors with more secure childhood attachment were less likely to develop anxious attachment in adulthood. Additionally, CSA survivors reported less secure adult attachment, more psychological distress, and lower self-esteem than did individuals without a history of CSA. Furthermore, secure childhood attachment was significantly associated with secure adult attachment, lower levels of psychological distress, and higher levels of self-esteem.
Conclusions
The results suggested that secure childhood attachment at least partially protected against negative long-term effects of CSA and fostered healthier intrapersonal and interpersonal adjustment in CSA survivors.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
References
Acock, A. C. (2005). Working with missing values. Journal of Marriage and Family Therapy, 67(4), 1012–1028. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00191.x
Ainsworth, M. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44(4), 709–716. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.4.709
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual difference and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(5), 427–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02202939
Aspelmeier, J. E., Elliott, A. N., & Smith, C. H. (2007). Childhood sexual abuse, attachment, and trauma symptoms in college females: The moderating role of attachment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(5), 549–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.002
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical consideration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
Barth, J., Bermetz, L., Heim, E., Trelle, S., & Tonia, T. (2013). The current prevalence of child sexual abuse worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Public Health, 58, 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-012-0426-1
Bowlby J. (1969). Attachment. Attachment and loss: Vol. 1 Loss. Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 2. Separation, anxiety, and anger. Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 3: Loss, Sadness and Depression. Basic Books.
Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult romantic attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). Guilford Press.
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Gotlib, I. H. (1993). Psychopathology and early experience: A reappraisal of retrospective reports. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), 82–98. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.1.82
Briere, J. N. (1992). Child abuse trauma: Theory and treatment of the lasting effects. Sage Publications, Inc.
Briere, J., Runtz, M., Eadie, E., Bigras, N., & Godbout, N. (2017). Disengaged parenting: Structural equation modeling with child abuse, insecure attachment, and adult symptomatology. Child Abuse & Neglect, 67, 260–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.036
Campbell, L., & Marshall, T. (2011). Anxious attachment and relationship processes: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1219–1249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00723.x
Corporation, I. B. M. (2015). IBM SPSS Statistics 23. IBM Corporation.
Crowell, J. A., Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. R. (1999). Measurement of individual differences in adolescent and adult attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 434–465). The Guilford Press.
Cyr, M., Hebert, M., Frappier, J., Tourigny, M., McDuff, P., & Turcotte, M. (2014). Parental support provided by nonoffending caregivers to sexually abused children: A comparison between mothers and fathers. Journal of Child Custody, 11, 216–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/15379418.2014.954688
Dong, Y., & Peng, C. J. (2013). Principled missing data methods for researchers. Springerplus, 2(222), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-222
Donker, T., Comijs, H., Cuijpers, P., Terluin, B., Nolen, W., Zitman, F., & Penninx, B. (2010). The validity of the Dutch K10 and extended K10 screening scales for depressive and anxiety disorders. Psychiatry Research, 176(1), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.01.012
Easton, S. D., Safadi, N. S., Wang, Y., & Hasson, R. G. (2017). The Kessler psychological distress scale: Translation and validation of an Arabic version. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 15(1), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-017-0783-9
Edelstein, R. S., Ghetti, S., Quas, J. A., Goodman, G. S., Alexander, K. W., Redlich, A. D., Redlich, A. D., & Cordón, I. M. (2005). Individual differences in emotional memory: Adult attachment and long-term memory for child sexual abuse. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(11), 1537–1548. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205277095
Ensink, K., Borelli, J. L., Normandin, L., Target, M., & Fonagy, P. (2020). Childhood sexual abuse and attachment insecurity: Associations with child psychological difficulties. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90(1), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000407
Fergusson, D. M., McLeod, G. F., & Horwood, L. J. (2013). Childhood sexual abuse and adult developmental outcomes: Findings from a 30-year longitudinal study in New Zealand. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(9), 664–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.013
Ferragut, M., Ortiz-Tallo, M., & Blanca, M. J. (2021). Prevalence of child sexual abuse in Spain: A representative sample study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211042804
Finkelhor, D. (1979). Sexually victimized children. Free Press.
Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A., Turner, H. A., & Hamby, S. L. (2014). The lifetime prevalence of child sexual abuse and sexual assault assessed in late adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55, 329–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.12.026
Fraley, R. C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modeling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(2), 123–151. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_03
Fraley, R. C., & Roisman, G. I. (2015). Do early caregiving experiences leave an enduring or transient mark on developmental adaptation? Current Opinion in Psychology, 1, 101–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.11.007
Godbout, N., Sabourin, S., & Lussier, Y. (2009). Child sexual abuse and adult romantic adjustment: Comparison of single-and multiple-indicator measures. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(4), 639–705. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508317179
Godbout, N., Briere, J., Sabourin, S., & Lussier, Y. (2014). Child sexual abuse and subsequent relational and personal functioning: The role of parental support. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(2), 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.001
Griffing, S., Lewis, C. S., Chu, M., Sage, R., Jospitre, T., Madry, L., & Primm, B. J. (2006). The process of coping with domestic violence in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 25(2), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v15n02_02
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
Hershkowitz, I., Lanes, O., & Lamb, M. E. (2007). Exploring the disclosure of child sexual abuse with alleged victims and their parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(2), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.09.004
Hillberg, T., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., & Dixon, L. (2011). Review of meta-analyses on the association between child sexual abuse and adult mental health difficulties: A systemic approach. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838010386812
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modeling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.21427/D7CF7R
Huis in’t Veld, E., Vingerhoets, A., & Denollet, J. (2011). Attachment style and self-esteem: The mediating role of type D personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 1099–1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.034
Jackson, D. L. (2003). Revisiting sample size and the number of parameter estimates: Some support for the N:Q hypothesis. Structural Equation Modeling, 10, 128–141. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM1001_6
Kenny, M. E., & Sirin, S. R. (2006). Parental attachment, self-worth, and depressive symptoms among emerging adults. Journal of Counseling and Development, 84(1), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2006.tb00380.x
Kessler, R. C., Barker, P. R., Colpe, L. J., Epstein, J. F., Gfroerer, J. C., Hiripi, E., Howes, M. J., Normand, S. T., Manderscheid, R. W., Walters, E. E., & Zaslavsky, A. M. (2003). Screening for serious mental illness in the general population. Archives General Psychiatry, 60(2), 184–189. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.2.184
Kia-Keating, M., Sorsoli, L., & Grossman, F. K. (2010). Relational challenges and recovery processes in male survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(4), 666–683. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509334411
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. The Guilford Press.
Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Roesch, S. C. (2004). Pathways to self-esteem in late adolescence: The role of parent and peer attachment, empathy, and social behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 27(6), 703–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.05.005
Langton, C. M., Murad, Z., & Humbert, B. (2017). Childhood sexual abuse, attachments in childhood and adulthood, and coercive sexual behaviors in community males: Main effects and a moderating function for attachment. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 29(3), 207–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063215583853
Li, S. T., Albert, A. B., & Dwelle, D. G. (2014). Parental and peer support as predictors of depression and self-esteem among college students. Journal of College Student Development, 55(2), 120–138. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2014.0015
Lopez, F. G., & Brennan, K. A. (2000). Dynamic process underlying adult attachment organization: Toward an attachment theoretical perspective on the healthy and effective self. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(3), 283–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.3.283
Love, K. M. (2008). Parental attachments and psychological distress among African American college students. Journal of College Student Development, 49(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2008.0000
Maniglio, R. (2009). The impact of child sexual abuse on health: A systematic review of reviews. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 647–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.003
McElvaney, R., Greene, S., & Hogan, D. (2014). To tell or not tell? Factors influencing young people’s informal disclosures of child sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(5), 928–947. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513506281
Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Pereg, D. (2003). Attachment theory and affect regulation: The dynamics, development, and cognitive consequences of attachment-related strategies. Motivation and Emotion, 27(2), 77–102. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024515519160
Moretti, M., & Peled, M. (2004). Adolescent-parent attachment: Bonds that support healthy development. Paediatrics & Child Health, 9(8), 551–555. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/9.8.551
Muller, R. T. (2009). Trauma and dismissing (avoidant) attachment: Intervention strategies in individual psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 46(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015135
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2015). Mplus user's guide: Seventh edition. Muthén & Muthén.
Nosko, A., Tieu, T., Lawford, H., & Pratt, M. (2011). How do I love thee? Let me count the ways: Parenting during adolescence, attachment styles, and romantic narratives in emerging adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 47(3), 645–657. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021814
Ramírez, C., Pinzón-Rondón, A. M., & Botero, J. C. (2011). Contextual predictive factors of child sexual abuse: The role of parent-child interaction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(12), 1022–1031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.10.004
Roche, D. N., Runtz, M. G., & Hunter, M. A. (1999). Adult attachment: A mediator between child sexual abuse and later psychological adjustment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(2), 184–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626099014002006
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. Basic Books.
Ryu, E. (2011). Effects of skewness and kurtosis on normal-theory based maximum likelihood test statistic in multilevel structural equation modeling. Behavior Research Methods, 43(4), 1066–1074. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0115-7
Schaeffer, P., Leventhal, J. M., & Asnes, A. G. (2011). Children’s disclosures of sexual abuse: Learning from direct inquiry. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35, 343–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.01.014
Schafer, J. L. (1999). Multiple imputation: A primer. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 8(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1191/096228099671525676
Shen, F., Liu, Y., & Brat, M. (2021a). Attachment, self-esteem, and psychological distress: A multiple-mediator model. The Professional Counselor, 11(2), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.15241/fs.11.2.129
Shen, F., Soloski, K., & Liu, Y. (2021b). Adolescent parental attachment and intimate relationship in adulthood: An investigation of contextual factors and long-term outcomes of child sexual abuse. Children and Youth Services Review, 122, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105869
Sperry, D. M., & Widom, C. S. (2013). Child abuse and neglect, social support, and psychopathology in adulthood: A prospective investigation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(6), 415–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.02.006
Staller, K. M., & Nelson-Gardell, D. (2005). “A burden in your heart”: Lessons of disclosure from female preadolescent and adolescent survivors of sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(12), 1415–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.06.007
Styron, T., & Janoff-Bulman, R. (1997). Childhood attachment and abuse: Long-term effects on adult attachment, depression, and conflict resolution. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(10), 1015–1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00062-8
Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & Albersheim, L. (2000). Attachment security in infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 71(3), 684–689. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00176
Whiffen, V. E., Judd, M. E., & Aube, J. A. (1999). Intimate relationships moderate the association between childhood sexual abuse and depression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 940–954. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626099014009002
Wilson, L. C., & Scarpa, A. (2015). Interpersonal difficulties mediate the relationship between child sexual abuse and depression symptoms. Violence and Victims, 30(1), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-13-00059
Yancey, C. T., & Hansen, D. J. (2010). Relationship of personal, familial, and abuse-specific factors with outcomes following childhood sexual abuse. Aggression and Violent Behaviors, 15(6), 410–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2010.07.003
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Shen, F., Soloski, K.L. Examining the Moderating Role of Childhood Attachment for the Relationship between Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Attachment. J Fam Viol (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-022-00456-9
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-022-00456-9
Keywords
- Child sexual abuse
- Attachment
- Psychological distress
- Self-esteem