Skip to main content

Economic Burden of Child Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in the United States

Journal of Family Violence volume 33, pages 239–249 (2018)Cite this article

Abstract

Because the effects of children’s exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) carry long lasting consequences for the affected children, IPV exposure may impose a significant economic burden to localities, states, and society at large, made explicit over the victim’s lifetime and over a wide range of behaviors and outcomes, including use of social services, health and healthcare utilization, educational outcomes, workforce productivity, and criminal behavior. While much research has been conducted on the effect of IPV exposure on multiple short- and long-term outcomes, no research to date has examined the economic burden associated with IPV exposure. Using an incidence-based approach, we estimated the aggregate discounted costs associated with healthcare spending, criminal behavior, and labor market productivity accrued by a 20-year-old victim in 2016 projected to the age of 65, applying a 3% discount rate. The average lifetime costs derived from childhood IPV exposure are estimated to be over $50,000 per victim (2016 U.S. dollars) due to increased healthcare costs ($11,000), increased crime costs ($14,000), and productivity losses ($26,000). Over an annual birth cohort of young adults, these costs amount to over $55 billion nationwide. IPV exposure imposes a substantial economic burden to society at large in the form of increased healthcare costs, increased crime costs, and reduced productivity. This study offers an explicit quantification of substantial lifetime costs, which should encourage policy makers to redouble efforts to reduce the incidence of IPV and successfully ameliorate its effects on IPV-exposed children.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Ball, B., Tharp, A. T., Noonan, R. K., Valle, L. A., Hamburger, M. E., & Rosenbluth, B. (2012). Expect respect support groups: preliminary evaluation of a dating violence prevention program for at-risk youth. Violence Against Women, 18(7), 746–762. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212455188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourassa, C. (2007). Co-occurrence of interparental violence and child physical abuse and its effect on the adolescents’ behavior. Journal of Family Violence, 22(8), 691–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9117-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Basile, K. C., Walters, M. L., Chen, J., & Merrick, M. T. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization—national intimate partner and sexual violence survey, United States. 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries, 63(8), 1–18.

  • Cannon, E. A., Bonomi, A. E., Anderson, M. L., Rivara, F. P., & Thompson, R. S. (2010). Adult health and relationship outcomes among women with abuse experiences during childhood. Violence and Victims, 25(3), 291–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease and Control. (2016). Intimate partner violence: Definitions. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/definitions.html.

  • Choi, H. J., & Temple, J. R. (2016). Do gender and exposure to interparental violence moderate the stability of teen dating violence? latent transition analysis. Prevention Science, 17(3), 367–376.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (2015). Trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy for traumatized children and families. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24(3), 557–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2015.02.005.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Iyengar, S. (2011). Community treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder for children exposed to intimate partner violence: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 165(1), 16–21. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, DHHS-CMS. (2012). Health expenditures by age and gender. Retrieved from https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/NationalHealthExpendData/Age-and-Gender.html.

  • Ehrensaft, M. K., Cohen, P., Brown, J., Smailes, E., Chen, H., & Johnson, J. G. (2003). Intergenerational transmission of partner violence: A 20-year prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 741–753.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El-Sheikh, M., & Harger, J. (2001). Appraisals of marital conflict and children’s adjustment, health, and physiological reactivity. Developmental Psychology, 37(6), 875–885.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, S. E., Davies, C., & DiLillo, D. (2008). Exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis of child and adolescent outcomes. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13(2), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.02.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, X., Brown, D. S., Florence, C. S., & Mercy, J. A. (2012). The economic burden of child maltreatment in the United States and implications for prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(2), 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.10.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2011). Crime in the United States, by volume and rate per 100,000 inhabitants, 1991–2010. Retrieved from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.-2010/tables/10tbl01.xls.

  • Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V.,…Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: results from the national survey of children’s exposure to violence. JAMA Pediatrics, 169, 746–754. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676.

  • Font, S. A., & Maguire-Jack, K. (2016). Pathways from childhood abuse and other adversities to adult health risks: the role of adult socioeconomic conditions. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 390–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Ennett, S. T., Linder, F., Benefield, T., & Suchindran, C. (2004). Assessing the long-term effects of the safe dates program and a booster in preventing and reducing adolescent dating violence victimization and perpetration. American Journal of Public Health, 94(4), 619–624. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.94.4.619.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Garrido, E. F., & Taussig, H. N. (2013). Do parenting practices and pro-social peers moderate the association between intimate partner violence exposure and teen dating violence? Psychology of Violence, 3(4), 354–366.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2011). Evidence-based practices for school-age children exposed to intimate partner violence and evaluation of the Kids’ Club program. In S. A. Graham-Bermann & A. A. Levendosky (Eds.), How intimate partner violence affects children: Developmental research, case studies, and evidence-based intervention (pp. 179–205). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Graham-Bermann, S. A., Howell, K. H., Lilly, M., & DeVoe, E. (2011). Mediators and moderators of change in adjustment following intervention for children exposed to intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(9), 1815–1833. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510372931.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham-Bermann, S. A., & Hughes, H. M. (2003). Intervention for children exposed to interparental violence (IPV): assessment of needs and research priorities. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6(3), 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024962400234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham-Bermann, S. A., Lynch, S., Banyard, V., DeVoe, E. R., & Halabu, H. (2007). Community-based intervention for children exposed to intimate partner violence: an efficacy trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(2), 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.2.199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham-Bermann, S. A., Miller-Graff, L. E., Howell, K. H., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2015). An efficacy trial of an intervention program for children exposed to intimate partner violence. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 46(6), 928–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0532-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grych, J. H., Fincham, F. D., Jouriles, E. N., & McDonald, R. (2000). Interparental conflict and child adjustment: testing the mediational role of appraisals in the cognitive-contextual framework. Child Development, 71(6), 1648–1661.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & Ormrod, R. (2010). The overlap of witnessing partner violence with child maltreatment and other victimizations in a nationally representative survey of youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(10), 734–741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, M. R., Voith, L. A., & Gromoske, A. N. (2015). Lasting effect of intimate partner violence exposure during preschool on aggressive behavior and prosocial skills. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(10), 1651–1670.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ireland, T. O., & Smith, C. A. (2009). Living in partner-violent families: Developmental links to antisocial behavior and relationship violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 323–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, E. J., Wang, E., & Turner, L. (2009). Traumatic events involving friends and family members in a sample of African American early adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(3), 398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jouriles, E. N., & McDonald, R. (2015). Intimate partner violence, coercive control, and child adjustment problems. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(3), 459–474.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiesel, L. R., Piescher, K. N., & Edleson, J. L. (2016). The relationship between child maltreatment, intimate partner violence exposure, and academic performance. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 10(4), 434–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitzmann, K. M., Gaylord, N. K., Holt, A. R., & Kenny, E. D. (2003). Child witnesses to domestic violence: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 339–352. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.2.339.

  • Lieberman, A. F., Ippen, C. G., & Van Horn, P. (2006). Child-parent psychotherapy: 6-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(8), 913–918. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000222784.03735.92.

  • Margolin, G., Vickerman, K. A., Oliver, P. H., & Gordis, E. B. (2010). Violence exposure in multiple interpersonal domains: cumulative and differential effects. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47(2), 198–205.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Torteya, C., Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, A. A., & Von Eye, A. (2016). The influence of prenatal intimate partner violence exposure on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity and childhood internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 28(01), 55–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCollister, K. E., French, M. T., & Fang, H. (2010). The cost of crime to society: New crime-specific estimates for policy and program evaluation. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 108(1/2), 98–109. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.12.002.

  • McDonald, R., Jouriles, E. N., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., Caetano, R., & Green, C. E. (2006). Estimating the number of American children living in partner-violent families. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 137–142. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.20.1.137.

  • Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2001). Risk of crime victimization among youth exposed to domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(9), 944–964. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016009006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narayan, A. J., Sapienza, J. K., Monn, A. R., Lingras, K. A., & Masten, A. S. (2015). Risk, vulnerability, and protective processes of parental expressed emotion for children’s peer relationships in contexts of parental violence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(4), 676–688.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2003). Costs of intimate partner violence against women in the United States. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., DeGue, S., Florence, C., & Lokey, C. N. (2017). Lifetime economic burden of rape among US adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine.

  • Reyes, H., Foshee, V. A., Fortson, B. L., Valle, L. A., Breiding, M. J., & Merrick, M. T. (2015). Longitudinal mediators of relations between family violence and adolescent dating aggression perpetration. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(4), 1016–1030.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N. (2012). Arrests in the United States, 1990–2010. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 239423.

  • Sousa, C., Herrenkohl, T. I., Moylan, C. A., Tajima, E. A., Klika, J. B., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2011). Longitudinal study on the effects of child abuse and children’s exposure to domestic violence, parent-child attachments, and antisocial behavior in adolescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(1), 111–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510362883.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamborini, C. R., Kim, C., & Sakamoto, A. (2015). Education and lifetime earnings in the United States. Demography, 52(4), 1383–1407. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0407-0.

  • Taylor, T. N., Davis, P. H., Torner, J. C., Holmes, J., Meyer, J. W., & Jacobson, M. F. (1996). Lifetime cost of stroke in the United States. Stroke, 27(9), 1459–1466.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • United States Environmental Protection Agency. Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses; EPA #240-R-10-001; National Center for Environmental Economics, Office of Policy: Washington, DC, 2010

  • Van Horn, P., & Lieberman, A. F. (2006). Child-parent psychotherapy and the Early Trauma Treatment Network: Collaborating to treat infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. In M. M. Feerick & G. B. Silverman (Eds.), Children exposed to violence (pp. 87–105). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vu, N. L., Jouriles, E. N., McDonald, R., & Rosenfield, D. (2016). Children’s exposure to intimate partner violence: a meta-analysis of longitudinal associations with child adjustment problems. Clinical Psychology Review, 46, 25–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitfield, C. L., Anda, R. F., Dube, S. R., & Felitti, V. J. (2003). Violent childhood experiences.and the risk of intimate partner violence in adults: Assessment in a large health maintenance organization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(2), 166–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., McIntyre-Smith, A., & Jaffe, P. G. (2003). The effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence: a meta-analysis and critique. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 171–187. https://doi.org/10.1023/A1024910416164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., Wekerle, C., Scott, K., Straatman, A. L., Grasley, C., & Reitzel-Jaffe, D. (2003). Dating violence prevention with at-risk youth: a controlled outcome evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(2), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.2.279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhuo, X., Zhang, P., & Hoerger, T. (2010). Lifetime cost of type 2 diabetes in the US—An incidence-based estimate. Abstract Number: 434-PP at The America Diabetes Association, 70th Scientific Session, Orlando, FL, June 25–29, 2010.

  • Zolotor, A. J., Theodore, A. D., Coyne-Beasley, T., & Runyan, D. K. (2007). Intimate partner violence and child maltreatment: overlapping risk. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 7(4), 305–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Funded through The HealthPath Foundation of Ohio. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the funders, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by The HealthPath Foundation of Ohio.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44106-7164, USA

    Megan R. Holmes, Francisca G. C. Richter, Kristen A. Berg & Anna E. Bender

  2. Weatherhead School of Management, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Mark E. Votruba

Authors
  1. Megan R. Holmes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Francisca G. C. Richter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mark E. Votruba
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kristen A. Berg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Anna E. Bender
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Megan R. Holmes.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Holmes, M.R., Richter, F.G.C., Votruba, M.E. et al. Economic Burden of Child Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in the United States. J Fam Viol 33, 239–249 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-018-9954-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-018-9954-7

Keywords

  • Intimate partner violence exposure
  • Domestic violence
  • Economic burden
  • Lifetime costs