Social Ecological Correlates of Family-Level Interpersonal and Environmental Microaggressions Toward Sexual and Gender Minority Adolescents

Gartner, Rachel E.; Sterzing, Paul R.

doi:10.1007/s10896-017-9937-0

Original Article
Published: 23 August 2017

Social Ecological Correlates of Family-Level Interpersonal and Environmental Microaggressions Toward Sexual and Gender Minority Adolescents

Rachel E. Gartner¹ &
Paul R. Sterzing¹

Journal of Family Violence volume 33, pages 1–16 (2018)Cite this article

2336 Accesses
14 Citations
7 Altmetric
Metrics details

Abstract

Microaggressions are associated with mental and behavioral health problems and are common experiences for sexual and gender minority adolescents (SGMA). Little is known about the social ecological correlates of family-level interpersonal and environmental microaggressions for SGMA. Utilizing a national sample of SGMA (N = 1,177), this study (a) identified the frequencies of family-level interpersonal and environmental microaggressions by participant demographics and (b) examined individual-, family-, and structural-level factors associated with interpersonal and environmental microaggressions. Outness to parents, a transgender or genderqueer identity, and higher levels of gender role non-conformity were associated with higher frequencies of interpersonal microaggressions. Higher levels of family-level child maltreatment and religiosity were associated with higher frequencies of interpersonal and environmental microaggressions. State-level non-discrimination protections were associated with lower frequencies of environmental microaggressions. Suggestions for increased individual-level support for gender non-binary adolescents as well as family targeted preventive strategies are discussed. Areas for future research are highlighted.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

Birkett, M., Espelage, D. L., & Koenig, B. (2009). LGB and questioning students in schools: the moderating effects of homophobic bullying and school climate on negative outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 989–1000. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9389-1.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Brill, S., & Kenney, L. (2016). The transgender teen: The handbook for parents and professionals supporting transgender and non-binary teens. Jersey City: Cleis Press.
Google Scholar
Busseri, M. A., Willoughby, T., Chalmers, H., & Bogaert, A. F. (2008). On the association between sexual attraction and adolescent risk behavior involvement: examining mediation and moderation. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.69.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Button, D. M., O’Connell, D. J., & Gealt, R. (2012). Sexual minority youth victimization and social support: the intersection of sexuality, gender, race, and victimization. Journal of Homosexuality, 59(1), 18–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2011.614903.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Conley, C. L. (2011). Learning about a child’s gay or lesbian sexual orientation: parental concerns about societal rejection, loss of loved ones, and child well being. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(8), 1022–1040. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2011.598409.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2005). Parents’ awareness of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths’ sexual orientation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(2), 474–482. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00129.x.
Article Google Scholar
D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(11), 1462–1482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506293482.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2008). Gender atypicality and sexual orientation development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth: prevalence, sex differences, and parental responses. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 12(1–2), 121–143. https://doi.org/10.1300/J529v12n01_08.
Google Scholar
D’Augelli, A. R., Hershberger, S. L., & Pilkington, N. W. (1998). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth and their families: Disclosure of sexual orientation and its consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68(3), 361–371. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080345.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Daboin, I., Peterson, J. L., & Parrott, D. J. (2015). Racial differences in sexual prejudice and its correlates among heterosexual men. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 258–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038444.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Darrell, L., Littlefield, M., & Washington, E. M. (2016). Safe spaces, nurturing places. Journal of Social Work Education, 52(1), 43–49.
Google Scholar
Diamond, L. M., & Lucas, S. (2004). Sexual-minority and heterosexual youths’ peer relationships: experiences, expectations, and implications for well-being. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14(3), 313–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.00077.x.
Article Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D. (2008). Childhood victimization: Violence, crime, and abuse in the lives of young people. New York: Oxford University Press.
Book Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Hamby, S. L., Turner, H. A., & Ormrod, R. K. (2011). The juvenile victimization questionnaire: 2nd Revision (JVQ-R2). Durham: Crimes Against Children Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.unh.edu/ccrc/jvq/available_versions.html.
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., & Turner, H. A. (2007). Poly-victimization: a neglected component in child victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.06.008.
Article Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A., Turner, H. A., Ormrod, R., & Hamby, S. L. (2011). Polyvictimization in developmental context. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 4(4), 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2011.610432.
Article Google Scholar
Friedman, M. S., Marshal, M. P., Guadamuz, T. E., Wei, C., Wong, C. F., Saewyc, E., & Stall, R. (2011). A meta-analysis of disparities in childhood sexual abuse, parental physical abuse, and peer victimization among sexual minority and sexual nonminority individuals. American Journal of Public Health, 101(8), 1481–1494. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.190009.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gartner, R. E., & Sterzing, P. R. (2016). Gender microaggressions as a gateway to sexual harassment and sexual assault: expanding the conceptualization of youth sexual violence. Affilia, 31(4), 491–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109916654732.
Glick, S. N., & Golden, M. R. (2010). Persistence of racial differences in attitudes toward homosexuality in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes (1999), 55(4), 516–523. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181f275e0.
Article Google Scholar
GLSEN (2016). State maps. Retrieved May 20, 2016, from http://www.glsen.org/article/state-maps.
Goldblum, P., Testa, R. J., Pflum, S., Hendricks, M. L., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B. (2012). The relationship between gender-based victimization and suicide attempts in transgender people. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 468–475. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029605.
Article Google Scholar
Greytak, E. A., Kosciw, J. G., & Diaz, E. M. (2009). Harsh realities: The experiences of transgender youth in our nation’s schools. ERIC. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED505687.
Grossman, A. H., D’Augelli, A. R., & Frank, J. A. (2011). Aspects of psychological resilience among transgender youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 8(2), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2011.541347.
Article Google Scholar
Grubesic, T. H., & Matisziw, T. C. (2006). On the use of ZIP codes and ZIP code tabulation areas (ZCTAs) for the spatial analysis of epidemiological data. International Journal of Health Geographics, 5(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-072X-5-58.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hall, W. (2017). The effectiveness of policy interventions for school bullying: a systematic review. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 8(1), 45–69. https://doi.org/10.1086/690565.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Harrison, J., Grant, J., & Herman, J. L. (2012). A gender not listed here: genderqueers, gender rebels, and otherwise in the national transgender discrimination survey. LGBTQ Public Policy Journal at the Harvard Kennedy School, 2(1). Retrieved from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/2zj46213.
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2011). The social environment and suicide attempts in lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Pediatrics, 127(5), 896–903. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-3020.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Keyes, K. M. (2013). Inclusive anti-bullying policies and reduced risk of suicide attempts in lesbian and gay youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1 Suppl), S21-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.08.010.
Google Scholar
Hong, J. S., & Espelage, D. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: an ecological system analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.03.003.
Article Google Scholar
Hooghe, M., Claes, E., Harell, A., Quintelier, E., & Dejaeghere, Y. (2010). Anti-gay sentiment among adolescents in Belgium and Canada: a comparative investigation into the role of gender and religion. Journal of Homosexuality, 57(3), 384–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360903543071.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Horn, S. S., Kosciw, J. G., & Russell, S. T. (2009). Special issue introduction: new research on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: studying lives in context. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 863–866. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9420-1.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Article Google Scholar
IVEware: Imputation and Variance Estimation Software. (2002). (Version 0.1). Ann Arbor: Survey Methodology Program, Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.
King, M. F., & Bruner, G. C. (2000). Social desirability bias: a neglected aspect of validity testing. Psychology and Marketing, 17(2), 79–103. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(200002)17:2<79::AID-MAR2>3.0.CO;2-0.
Article Google Scholar
Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., & Diaz, E. M. (2009). Who, what, where, when, and why: demographic and ecological factors contributing to hostile school climate for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 976–988. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9412-1.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., Palmer, N. A., & Boesen, M. J. (2014). The 2013 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth in our nation’s schools. New York: GLSEN.
Google Scholar
Lauritsen, J. I. (2003). How families and communities influence youth victimization (Juvenile Justice Bulliten). Washington, D.C: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/23c5/046d8f693bb8a5f84f42a0692e51956dcc6b.pdf.
McDermott, E., Roen, K., & Piela, A. (2013). Hard-to-reach youth online: methodological advances in self-harm research. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 10(2), 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-012-0108-z.
Article Google Scholar
Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137286.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Nadal, K. L., Issa, M., Leon, J., Meterko, V., Wideman, M., & Wong, Y. (2011). Sexual orientation microaggressions: “Death by a thousand cuts” for lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 8(3), 234–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2011.584204.
Article Google Scholar
Newman, B. S., & Muzzonigro, P. G. (1993). The effects of traditional family values on the coming out process of gay male adolescents. Adolescence, 28(109), 213–226.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Paceley, M. S. (2016). Gender and sexual minority youth in nonmetropolitan communities: individual- and community-level needs for support. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 97(2), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2016.97.11.
Article Google Scholar
Raghunathan, T. E., Lepkowski, J. M., Van Hoewyk, J., & Solenberger, P. (2001). A multivariate technique for multiply imputing missing values using a sequence of regression models. Survey Methodology, 27(1), 85–95.
Google Scholar
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., & Udry, R. J. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. JAMA, 278(10), 823–832.
CAS Article PubMed Google Scholar
Roberts, A. L., Rosario, M., Corliss, H. L., Koenen, K. C., & Austin, S. B. (2012). Childhood gender nonconformity: a risk indicator for childhood abuse and posttraumatic stress in youth. Pediatrics, 129(3), 410–417. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1804.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Rural Health Research Center (2000). Rural urban commuting area codes data. Retrieved May 25, 2016, from http://depts.washington.edu/uwruca/ruca-data.php.
Ryan, C. L. (2010). Engaging families to support lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: the family acceptance project. The Prevention Researcher, 17(4), 11–13.
Google Scholar
Ryan, C. L., Huebner, D., Diaz, R. M., & Sanchez, J. (2009). Family rejection as a predictor of negative health outcomes in White and Latino lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults. Pediatrics, 123(1), 346–352. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3524.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Ryan, C. L., Russell, S. T., Huebner, D., Diaz, R., & Sanchez, J. (2010). Family acceptance in adolescence and the health of LGBT young adults. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 23(4), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2010.00246.x.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Schulte, L. J., & Battle, J. (2004). The relative importance of ethnicity and religion in predicting attitudes towards gays and lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 47(2), 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v47n02_08.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Seidman, S. (2003). The social construction of sexuality (1st ed). New York: Norton.
Google Scholar
Singh, A. A., Meng, S. E., & Hansen, A. W. (2014). “I am my own gender”: resilience strategies of trans youth. Journal of Counseling & Development, 92(2), 208–218. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00150.x.
Article Google Scholar
Smetana, J. G., Campione-Barr, N., & Metzger, A. (2006). Adolescent development in interpersonal and societal contexts. Annual Review of Psychology, 57(1), 255–284. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190124.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Sterzing, P. R., Hong, J. S., Gartner, R. E., & Auslander, W. F. (2016). Child maltreatment and bullying victimization among a community-based sample of sexual minority youth: the meditating role of psychological distress. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 9(4), 283–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-016-0101-4.
Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. Hoboken: Wiley.
Google Scholar
Turner, H. A., & Butler, M. J. (2003). Direct and indirect effects of childhood adversity on depressive symptoms in young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(2), 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021853600645.
Article Google Scholar
Turner, H. A., Finkelhor, D., & Ormrod, R. (2007). Family structure variations in patterns and predictors of child victimization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(2), 282–295. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.2.282.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau (2014). 2014 American Community Survey [Database Record]. Retrieved March 8, 2016, from http://factfinder.census.gov.
Wilkinson, W. W. (2004). Authoritarian hegemony, dimensions of masculinity, and male antigay attitudes. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5(2), 121–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.5.2.121.
Article Google Scholar
Woodford, M. R., Chonody, J. M., Kulick, A., Brennan, D. J., & Renn, K. (2015). The LGBTQ microaggressions on campus scale: a scale development and validation study. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(12), 1660–1687. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2015.1078205.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Woodford, M. R., Han, Y., Craig, S., Lim, C., & Matney, M. M. (2014). Discrimination and mental health among sexual minority college students: the type and form of discrimination does matter. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 18(2), 142–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2013.833882.
Article Google Scholar
Woodford, M. R., Kulick, A., Sinco, B. R., & Hong, J. S. (2014). Contemporary heterosexism on campus and psychological distress among LGBQ students: the mediating role of self-acceptance. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84(5), 519–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000015.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Wright, A. J., & Wegner, R. T. (2012). Homonegative microaggressions and their impact on LGB individuals: a measure validity study. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 6(1), 34–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2012.648578.
Article Google Scholar

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by a grant from the National Institute of Justice (2013-IJ-CX-0029) awarded to University of California, Berkeley. Portions of this paper were presented at the 2017 Annual Conference for the Society for Social Work Research (New Orleans, LA).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

School of Social Welfare, University of California, 120 Haviland Hall, Berkeley, CA, 94720-7400, USA
Rachel E. Gartner & Paul R. Sterzing

Authors

Rachel E. Gartner
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Paul R. Sterzing
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rachel E. Gartner.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gartner, R.E., Sterzing, P.R. Social Ecological Correlates of Family-Level Interpersonal and Environmental Microaggressions Toward Sexual and Gender Minority Adolescents. J Fam Viol 33, 1–16 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-017-9937-0

Download citation

Published: 23 August 2017
Issue Date: January 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-017-9937-0

Keywords

Sexual minority
Gender minority
Adolescence
Family violence
Microaggressions
Minority stress