Abstract
Trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) is arguably the most important deciduous tree species in the Intermountain West of North America. There, as elsewhere in its range, aspen exhibits remarkable genetic variation in observable traits such as morphology and phenology. In contrast to Great Lakes populations, however, relatively little is known about phytochemical variation in western aspen. This survey of phytochemistry in western aspen was undertaken to assess how chemical expression varies among genotypes, cytotypes (diploid vs. triploid), and populations, and in response to development and mammalian browsing. We measured levels of foliar nitrogen, salicinoid phenolic glycosides (SPGs) and condensed tannins (CTs), as those constituents influence organismal interactions and ecosystem processes. Results revealed striking genotypic variation and considerable population variation, but minimal cytotype variation, in phytochemistry of western aspen. Levels of SPGs and nitrogen declined, whereas levels of CTs increased, with tree age. Browsed ramets had much higher levels of SPGs, and lower levels of CTs, than unbrowsed ramets of the same genotype. We then evaluated how composite chemical profiles of western aspen differ from those of Great Lakes aspen (assessed in earlier research). Interestingly, mature western aspen trees maintain much higher levels of SPGs, and lower levels of CTs, than Great Lakes aspen. Phenotypic variation in chemical composition of aspen – a foundation species – in the Intermountain West likely has important consequences for organismal interactions and forest ecosystem dynamics. Moreover, those consequences likely play out over spatial and temporal scales somewhat differently than have been documented for Great Lakes aspen.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data will be made available upon reasonable request.
Change history
20 February 2023
This is an update to correct some grammatical mistakes.
References
Anderegg WRL, Berry JA, Smith DD, Sperry JS, Anderegg LDL, Field CB (2012) The roles of hydraulic and carbon stress in a widespread climate-induced forest die-off. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109:233–237. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1107891109
Bailey JK, Schweitzer JA, Rehill BJ, Irschick DJ, Whitham TG, Lindroth RL (2007) Rapid shifts in the chemical composition of aspen forests: an introduced herbivore as an agent of natural selection. Biol Invas 9:715–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-006-9071-z
Barker HL, Holeski LM, Lindroth RL (2018) Genotypic variation in plant traits shapes herbivorous insect and ant communities on a foundation tree species. PLoS ONE 13(7):e0200954. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200954
Barker HL, Holeski LM, Lindroth RL (2019) Independent and interactive effects of plant genotype and environment on plant traits and insect herbivore performance: a meta-analysis with Salicaceae. Funct Ecol 33:422–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13249
Boeckler GA, Gershenzon J, Unsicker SB (2011) Phenolic glycosides of the Salicaceae and their role as anti-herbivore defenses. Phytochemistry 72:1497–1509
Boeckler GA, Towns M, Unsicker SB et al (2014) Transgenic upregulation of the condensed tannin pathway in poplar leads to a dramatic shift in leaf palatability for two tree-feeding Lepidoptera. J Chem Ecol 40:150–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-014-0383-7
Boege K, Marquis RJ (2005) Facing herbivory as you grow up: the ontogeny of resistance in plants. Trends Ecol Evol 20:441–448
Bonan BB (2008) Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science 320:1444–1449. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155121
Bryant JP, Chapin FS III, Klein DR (1983) Carbon nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos 40:357–368. https://doi.org/10.2307/3544308
Bryant JP, Danell K, Provenza F, Reichardt PB, Clausen TA, Werner RA (1991a) Effects of mammal browsing on the chemistry of deciduous woody plants. In: Tallamy DW, Raupp MJ (eds) Phytochemical induction by Herbivores. Wiley, New York, pp 135–154
Bryant JP, Provenza FD, Pastor J, Reichardt PB, Clausen TP, du Toit JT (1991b) Interactions between woody plants and browsing mammals mediated by secondary metabolites. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 22:431–446. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.22.110191.002243
Calder WJ, Horn KH, St. Clair SB (2011) Conifer expansion reduces the competitive ability and herbivore defense of aspen by modifying light environment and soil chemistry. Tree Physiol 31:582–591. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpr041
Call A, St. Clair SB (2018) Timing and mode of simulated ungulate herbivory alter aspen defense strategies. Tree Physiol 38:1476–1485. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpy071
Callahan CM, Rowe CA, Ryel RJ, Shaw JD, Madritch MD, Mock KE (2013) Continental-scale assessment of genetic diversity and population structure in quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). J Biogeogr 40:1780–1791. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12115
Cole CT, Stevens MT, Anderson JE, Lindroth RL (2016) Heterozygosity, gender, and the growth-defense trade-off in quaking aspen. Oecologia 181:381–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3577-6
Cole CT, Barker HL, Rubert-Nason KF, Morrow CJ, Riehl JFL, Köllner TG, Lackus ND, Lindroth RL (2021) Growing up aspen: ontogeny and tradeoffs shape growth, defence, and reproduction in a foundation species. Ann Bot 127:505–517. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcaa070
Cope OL, Kruger EL, Rubert-Nason KF, Lindroth RL (2019) Chemical defense over decadal scales: ontogenetic allocation trajectories and consequences for fitness in a foundation tree species. Funct Ecol 33:2105–2115. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13425
Cope OL, Keefover-Ring K, Kruger EL, Lindroth RL (2021) Growth-defense tradeoffs shape population genetic composition in an iconic forest tree species. Proc Natl Acad Sci 18(37):e2103162118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2103162118
Cope OL, Lindroth RL, Helm A, Keefover-Ring K, Kruger EL (2021) Trait plasticity and trade-offs shape intra-specific variation in competitive response in a foundation tree species. New Phytol 230:710–719. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17166
Daskalova N, Myers-Smith IH, Bjorkman AD, Blowes SA, Supp SR, Magurran AE, Dornelas M (2020) Landscape-scale forest loss as a catalyst of population and biodiversity change. Science 368:1341–1347. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba1289
DeRose RJ, Mock KE, Long JN (2015) Cytotype differences in radial increment provide novel insight into aspen reproductive ecology and stand dynamics. Can J For Res 45:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2014-0382
DeRose RJ, Gardner RS, Lindroth RL, Mock KE (2022) Polyploidy and growth-defense tradeoffs in natural populations of western quaking aspen. J Chem Ecol 48:431–440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-022-01355-5
Diner B, Berteaux D, Fyles J, Lindroth RL (2009) Behavioral archives link the chemistry and clonal structure of trembling aspen to the food choice of north american porcupine. Oecologia 160:687–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-009-1340-y
Donaldson JR, Stevens MT, Barnhill HR, Lindroth RL (2006a) Age-related shifts in leaf chemistry of clonal aspen (Populus tremuloides). J Chem Ecol 32:1415–1429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-006-9059-2
Donaldson JR, Kruger EL, Lindroth RL (2006b) Competition- and resource-mediated tradeoffs between growth and defensive chemistry in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides). New Phytol 169:561–570. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01613.x
Donaldson JR, Lindroth RL (2007) Genetics, environment, and their interaction determine efficacy of chemical defense in trembling aspen. Ecology 88:729–739. https://doi.org/10.1890/06-0064
Donaldson JR, Lindroth RL (2008) Effects of variable phytochemistry and budbreak phenology on defoliation of aspen during a forest tent caterpillar outbreak. Agric For Entomol 10:399–410. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-9563.2008.00392.x
Eisenring M, Lindroth RL, Flansburg A, Giezendanner N, Mock K, Kruger EL (2022) Genotypic variation rather than ploidy level determines functional trait expression in a foundation tree species in the presence and absence of environmental stress. Ann Bot (in press). https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcac071
Eisenring M, Best RJ, Zierden MR, Cooper HF, Norstrem MA, Whitham TG, Grady K, Allan GJ, Lindroth RL (2022) Genetic divergence along a climate gradient shapes chemical plasticity of a foundation tree species to both changing climate and herbivore damage. Global Change Biol (in press). https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16275
Ellison AM, Bank MS, Clinton BD, Colburn EA, Elliott K, Ford CR, Foster DR, Kloeppel BD, Knoepp JD, Lovett GM, Mohan J, Orwig DA, Rodenhouse NL, Sobczak WV, Stinson KA, Stone JK, Swan CM, Thompson J, Von Holle B, Webster JR (2005) Loss of foundation species: consequences for the structure and dynamics of forested ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 3:479–486
Erwin EA, Turner MG, Lindroth RL, Romme WH (2001) Secondary plant compounds in seedling and mature aspen (Populus tremuloides) in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Am Midl Nat 145:299–308
Falk MA, Lindroth RL, Keefover-Ring K, Raffa KF (2018) Genetic variation in aspen phytochemical patterns structure windows of opportunity for gypsy moth larvae. Oecologia 187:471–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-018-4160-0
Felipe-Lucia MR, Soliveres S, Penone C, Manning P et al (2018) Multiple forest attributes underpin the supply of multiple ecosystem services. Nat Commun 9:4839. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07082-4
Goessen R, Isabel N, Wehenkel C, Pavy N, Tischenko L, Touchette L, Giguere I, Gros-Louis M-C, Laroche J, Boyle B, Soolanayakanahally R, Mock K, Hernández-Velasco J, Simental-Rodriguez SL, Bousquet J, Porth IM (2022) Coping with environmental constraints: geographically divergent adaptive evolution and germination plasticity in the transcontinental Populus tremuloides. Plants, People, Planet. (In press). https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10297
Greer BT, Still C, Cullinan GL, Brooks JR, Meinze FC (2018) Polyploidy influences plant–environment interactions in quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.). Tree Phys 38:630–640. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpx120
Hagerman AE, Butler LG (1980) Condensed tannin purification and characterization of tannin-associated proteins. J Agric Food Chem 28:947–952
Holeski LM, Vogelzang A, Stanosz G, Lindroth RL (2009) Incidence of Venturia shoot blight damage in aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) Varies with tree chemistry and genotype. Biochem Syst Ecol 37:139–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2009.02.003
Holton MK, Lindroth RL, Nordheim EV (2003) Foliar quality influences tree-herbivore-parasitoid interactions: effects of elevated CO2, O3, and plant genotype. Oecologia 137:233–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-003-1351-z
Hwang S-Y, Lindroth RL (1997) Clonal variation in foliar chemistry of aspen: effects on gypsy moths and forest tent caterpillars. Oecologia 111:99–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420050213
Keefover-Ring K, Ahnlund M, Abreu IN, Jansson S, Moritz T, Albrectsen BR (2014) No evidence of geographical structure of salicinoid chemotypes within Populus tremula PLoS ONE 9(10):e107189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107189
Kerwin R, Feusier J, Corwin J, Rubin M, Lin C, Muok A, Larson B, Li B, Joseph B, Francisco M, Copeland D, Weinig C, Kliebenstein DJ (2015) Natural genetic variation in Arabidopsis thaliana defense metabolism genes modulates field fitness. Elife 4:e05604. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.05604
Kruger EL, Keefover-Ring K, Holeski LM, Lindroth RL (2020) To compete or defend: linking functional trait variation with life-history trade-offs in a foundation tree species. Oecologia 192:893–907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-020-04622-y
Lackus ND, Müller A, Kröber TDU, Reichelt M, Schmidt A, Nakamura Y, Paetz C, Luck K, Lindroth RL, Constabel CP, Unsicker SB, Gershenzon J, Köllner TG (2020) The occurrence of sulfated salicinoids in poplar and their formation by sulfotransferase. Plant Physiol 183:137–151. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.19.01447
Lämke JS, Unsicker SB (2018) Phytochemical variation in treetops: causes and consequences for tree-insect herbivore interactions. Oecologia 187:377–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-018-4087-5
Lastra RA, Kenkel NC, Daay F (2017) Phenolic glycosides in Populus tremuloides and their effects on long-term ungulate browsing. J Chem Ecol 43:1023–1030. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-017-0895-z
Lindroth RL (2001) Adaptations of quaking aspen for defense against damage by herbivores and related environmental agents. In: Sustaining Aspen in Western Landscapes: Symposium Proceedings; 13–15 June 2000; Grand Junction, CO. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Experiment Station. Proceedings RMRS-P-18. Fort Collins, CO. pp 273–284
Lindroth RL, Hwang S-Y (1996) Clonal variation in foliar chemistry of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.). Biochem Syst Ecol 24:357–364
Lindroth RL, St. Clair SB (2013) Adaptations of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) For defense against herbivores. For Ecol Manag 299:14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.11.018
Lindroth RL, Hsia MTS, Scriber JM (1987) Characterization of phenolic glycosides from quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Biochem Syst Ecol 15:677–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(87)90045-7
Lindroth RL, Scriber JM, Hsia MTS (1988) Chemical ecology of the tiger swallowtail: mediation of host use by phenolic glycosides. Ecology 69:814–822. https://doi.org/10.2307/1941031
Lindroth RL, Kinney KK, Platz CL (1993) Responses of deciduous trees to elevated atmospheric CO2: productivity, phytochemistry and insect performance. Ecology 74:763–777. https://doi.org/10.2307/1940804
Madritch MD, Lindroth RL (2011) Soil microbial communities adapt to genetic variation in leaf litter inputs. Oikos 120:1696–1704. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19195.x
Madritch MD, Lindroth RL (2015) Condensed tannins increase nitrogen recovery by trees following insect defoliation. New Phytol 208:410–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13444
Madritch MD, Donaldson JR, Lindroth RL (2006) Genetic identity of Populus tremuloides litter influences decomposition and nutrient release in a mixed forest stand. Ecosystems 9:528–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-006-0008-2
Madritch MD, Jordan LM, Lindroth RL (2007) Interactive effects of condensed tannin and cellulose additions on soil respiration. Can J For Res 37:2063–2067. https://doi.org/10.1139/X07-047
Madritch MD, Greene SG, Lindroth RL (2009) Genetic mosaics of ecosystem functioning across aspen-dominated landscapes. Oecologia 160:119–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-009-1283-3
Madritch MD, Kingdon CC, Singh A, Mock KE, Lindroth RL, Townsend PA (2014) Imaging spectroscopy links aspen genotype with belowground processes at landscape scales. Philos Trans R Soc B 369:20130194. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0194
Mattson WJ (1980) Herbivory in relation to plant nitrogen content. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 11:119–161. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.001003
Mattson WJ, Herms DA, Witter JA, Allen DC (1991) Woody plant grazing systems: North American outbreak folivores and their host plants. In Baranchikov YN, Mattson WJ, Hain FP, Payne TL (eds) Forest Insect Guilds: Patterns of Interaction with Host Trees. General Technical Report NE-153. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Radnor, Pennsylvania, pp 53–84
Mitton JB, Grant MC (1996) Genetic variation and the natural history of quaking aspen. Bioscience 46:25–31
Mock KE, Callahan CM, Islam-Faridi MN, Shaw JD, Rai HS et al (2012) Widespread triploidy in western north american aspen (Populus tremuloides). PLoS ONE 7(10):e48406. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048406
Müller MS, McWilliams SR, Podlesak D, Donaldson JR, Bothwell HM, Lindroth RL (2006) Tri-trophic effects of plant defenses: chickadees consume caterpillars based on host leaf chemistry. Oikos 114:507–517. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.14668.x
Oksanen J, Simpson G, Blanchet F, Kindt R, Legendre P, Minchin P, O’Hara R, Solymos P, Stevens M, Szoecs E, Wagner H, Barbour M, Bedward M, Bolker B, Borcard D, Carvalho G, Chirico M, De Caceres M, Durand S, Evangelista H, FitzJohn R, Friendly M, Furneaux B, Hannigan G, Hill M, Lahti L, McGlinn D, Ouellette M, Ribeiro Cunha E, Smith T, Stier A, Ter Braak C, Weedon J (2022) vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 2.6-4. https://CRAN.Rproject.org/package=vegan. Accessed 31 Jan 31 2023
O’Reilly-Wapstra JM, McArthur C, Potts BM (2004) Linking plant genotype, plant defensive chemistry and mammal browsing in a Eucalyptus species. Func Ecol 18:677–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0269-8463.2004.00887.x
Osier TL, Lindroth RL (2001) Effects of genotype, nutrient availability and defoliation on aspen phytochemistry and insect performance. J Chem Ecol 27:1289–1313. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010352307301
Osier TL, Lindroth RL (2006) Genotype and environment determine allocation to and costs of resistance in quaking aspen. Oecologia 148:293–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-006-0373-8
Osier TL, Hwang S-Y, Lindroth RL (2000) Within- and between-year variation in early season phytochemistry of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) Clones. Biochem Syst Ecol 28:197–208
Ott DS, Yanchuk AD, Huber DPW, Wallin KF (2011) Genetic variation of lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta var. latifolia, chemical and physical defenses that affect mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, attack and tree mortality. J Chem Ecol 37:1002–1012. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-011-0003-8
Parsons WFJ, Bockheim JG, Lindroth RL (2008) Independent, interactive, and species-specific responses of leaf litter decomposition to elevated CO2 and O3 in a northern hardwood forest. Ecosystems 11:505–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-008-9148-x
Pederson L, Munson S (2006) Management guide for gypsy moth. Forest Health Protection and State Forestry Organizations. USDA Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5187452.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2023
Pomplun NL (2022) Intraspecific trait variation drives variation in net primary productivity among experimental populations of Populus tremuloides. Masters Dissertation. University of Wisconsin-Madison
Porter LJ, Hrstich LN, Chan BG (1986) The conversion of procyanidins and prodelphinidins to cyanidin and delphinidin. Phytochemistry 25:223–230
R Core Team (2022) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. https://www.R-project.org/. Accessed 31 Jan 2023
Raffa KF, Mason CJ, Bonello P, Cook S, Erbilgin N, Keefover-Ring K, Klutsch JG, Villari C, Townsend PA (2017) Defence syndromes in lodgepole – whitebark pine ecosystems relate to degree of historical exposure to mountain pine beetles. Plant Cell Environ 40:1791–1806. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.12985
Refsland TK, Cushman JH (2021) Continent-wide synthesis of the long-term population dynamics of quaking aspen in the face of accelerating human impacts. Oecologia 197:25–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-021-05013-7
Rehfeldt GE, Ferguson DE, Crookston NL (2009) Aspen, climate, and sudden decline in western USA. For Ecol Manag 258:2353–2364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.06.005
Rhodes AC, Anderson V, St Clair SB (2017) Ungulate herbivory alters leaf functional traits and recruitment of regenerating aspen. Tree Physiol 37:402–413. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpx015
Rhodes AC, Larsen RT, Maxwell JD, St Clair SB (2018) Temporal patterns of ungulate herbivory and phenology of aspen regeneration and defense. Oecologia 188:707–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-018-4253-9
Rogers PC, McAvoy DJ (2018) Mule deer impede Pando’s recovery: implications for aspen resilience from a single-genotype forest. PLoS ONE 13(10):e0203619. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203619
Rogers PC, Pinno BD, Šebesta J, Albrectsen BR, Li G, Ivanova N, Kusbach A, Kuuluvainen T, Landhäusser SM, Liu H, Myking T, Pulkkinen P, Wen Z, Kulakowski D (2020) A global view of aspen: conservation science for widespread keystone systems. Global Ecol Conserv 21:e00828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00828
Roth S, Knorr C, Lindroth RL (1997) Dietary phenolics affect performance of the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) and its parasitoid Cotesia melanoscela (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Env Entomol 26:668–671. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/26.3.668
Rubert-Nason K, Lindroth RL (2021) Causes and consequences of condensed tannin variation in Populus: a molecules to ecosystems perspective. In: Reed J, de Freitas V, Quideau S (eds) Recent advances in Polyphenol Research, vol 7. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, pp 69–112
Seager ST, Eisenberg C, St. Clair SB (2013) Patterns and consequences of ungulate herbivory on aspen in western North America. For Ecol Manag 299:81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.02.017
Smith EA, Collette SB, Boynton TA, Lillrose T, Stevens MR, Bekker MF, Eggett D, St Clair SB (2011) Developmental contributions to phenotypic variation in functional leaf traits within quaking aspen clones. Tree Physiol 31:68–77. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpq100
Stanke H, Finley AO, Domke GM, Weed AS, MacFarlane DW (2021) Over half of western United States’ most abundant tree species in decline. Nat Commun 12:451. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20678-z
Wan HY, Rhodes AC, St. Clair SB (2014) Fire severity alters plant regeneration patterns and defense against herbivores in mixed aspen forests. Oikos 123:1479–1488. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.01521
Wooley SC, Walker S, Vernon J, Lindroth RL (2008) Aspen decline, aspen chemistry, and elk herbivory: are they linked? Rangelands 30:17–21. https://doi.org/10.2111/1551-501X(2008)30[17:ADACAE]2.0.CO;2
Acknowledgments
We thank Sarah Brown, Nancy Lindroth, Ron Lindroth, Racquel Rhodeheaver Lindroth and Scott Walker for field assistance, and Adam Gusse and Carol Rowe for laboratory assistance. The Great Basin Research Center in Ephraim, Utah provided transportation and access to sites in Central Utah. Sam St. Clair provided valuable comments on an early draft of the paper. This research was funded by National Science Foundation grants DEB-0074427, DEB-0344019, and FIBR-0425908.
Funding
Funding information is provided in the Acknowledgments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Richard Lindroth, Stuart Wooley and Jack Donaldson collected field samples; Stuart Wooley, Jack Donaldson and Kennedy Rubert-Nason performed phytochemical analyses; Karen Mock conducted microsatellite analyses; Clay Morrow conducted statistical analyses and prepared figures. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Richard Lindroth and all authors commented on subsequent versions.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lindroth, R.L., Wooley, S.C., Donaldson, J.R. et al. Phenotypic Variation in Phytochemical Defense of Trembling Aspen in Western North America: Genetics, Development, and Geography. J Chem Ecol 49, 235–250 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-023-01409-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-023-01409-2