Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Olfaction and Identification of Unrelated Individuals: Examination of the Mysteries of Human Odor Recognition

  • Published:
Journal of Chemical Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although several studies have examined the effect of human odor on kin recognition and mate choice, few have focused on the impact of familiarity on recognition of nonrelatives by olfactory cues. As part of a program designed to engage students in scientific research, 53 high school students researched, planned, and implemented a project to analyze the effect of odor on human recognition of, and preference for, friends, sex, and self. A total of 37 students, including friends of their choosing, wore T-shirts for three consecutive nights. During that time, subjects were controlled for exposure to extraneous perfumes, household odors, and other humans. The students were then asked to smell a series of five shirts and evaluate them with respect to pleasantness. Students were also asked to identify the shirts belonging to themselves and their friend, and determine the sex of the person who wore each shirt. Although subjects were unable to distinguish sex by olfactory cues alone, a significant percentage of subjects were able to identify their own odor (51.6%), as well as distinguish the odor cue of their friend (38.7%). Additionally, subjects who could not identify their friend's cue were apt to choose the odor of a member of the opposite sex as their friend. This result was not believed to rely on odor preference as neither individual, friend, nor stranger odors were rated significantly different with respect to odor pleasantness. The ability to recognize friends via odor cues lends credence to the hypothesis that association and familiarity are important aspects of conspecific olfactory recognition in humans. Furthermore, this study augments evidence that olfaction may supplement visual and auditory cues used in human conspecific and kin recognition.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

References

  • Cernoch, J. M. and Porter, R. H. 1985. Recognition of maternal axillary odors by infants. Child Dev. 56:1593–1598.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooley, M. 2001. The Columbia world of quotations, <http://www.bartleby.com>.

  • Devos, M., Patte, F., Rouault, J., Laffort, P., and Van Gemert, L. J. (eds.). 1990. Standardized Human Olfactory Thresholds. IRL Press, Oxford.

  • Doty, R. L. 1981. Olfactory communication in humans. Chem. Senses 6:351–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espelie, K. E., Wenzel, J. W., and Chang, G. 1990. Surface lipids of social wasp Polistes metricus Say and its nest and nest pedicel and their relation to nestmate recognition. J. Chem. Ecol. 16:2229–2241.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, S. W. and Magurran, A. E. 1999. Schooling decisions in guppies (Poecilia reticulata) are based on familiarity rather than kin recognition by phenotype matching. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 45:437–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays, W. S. T. 2003. Human pheromones: Have they been demonstrated? Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 54:89–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haze, S., Gozu, Y., Nakamura, S., Kohno, Y., Sawano, K., Ohta, H., and Yamazaki, K. 2001. 2-Nonenal newly found in human body odor tends to increase with aging. J. Invest. Dermatol. 116:520–524.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hold, B. and Schleidt, M. 1977. The importance of human odour in non-verbal communication. Z. Tierpsychol. 43:225–238.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, S., McClintock, M. K., Zelano, B., and Ober, C. 2002. Paternally inherited HLA alleles are associated with women's choice of male odor. Nat. Genet. 30:175–179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaitz, M. and Eidelman, A. I. 1992. Smell recognition of newborns by women who are not their mothers. Chem. Senses 17:225–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaitz, M., Good, A., Rokem, A. M., and Eidelman, A. I. 1987. Mothers' recognition of their newborns by olfactory cues. Dev. Psychobiol. 20:587–591.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, T. and Kasprzak, M. 1989. Identification of self through olfaction. Percept. Mot. Skill. 69:219–224.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mallet, P. and Schaal, B. 1998. Rating and recognition of peers' personal odors by 9-year-old children: An exploratory study. J. Gen. Psychol. 125:47–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mateo, J. M. 2002. Kin-recognition abilities and nepotism as a function of sociality. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B Biol. Sci. 269:721–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mateo, J. M. and Johnston, R. E. 2000a. Kin recognition and the “armpit effect”: Evidence of self-referent phenotype matching. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B Biol. Sci. 267:695–700.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mateo, J. M. and Johnston, R. E. 2000b. Retention of social recognition after hibernation in Belding's ground squirrels. Anim. Behav. 59:491–499.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen, K. H., Grahn, M., Lohm, J., and Langefors, A. 1998. MHC and kin discrimination in juvenile Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus (L.). Anim. Behav. 56:319–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penn, D. J. 2002. The scent of genetic compatibility: Sexual selection and the major histocompatibility complex. Ethology 108:1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Platek, S. M., Burch, R. L., and Gallup, G. G., JR. 2001. Sex differences in olfactory self-recognition. Physiol. Behav. 73:635–640.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. H. 1999. Olfaction and human kin recognition. Genetica 104:259–263.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. H. and Moore, J. D. 1981. Human kin recognition by olfactory cues. Physiol. Behav. 27:493–495.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. H. and Cernoch, J. M. 1983. Maternal recognition of neonates through olfactory cues. Physiol. Behav. 30:151–154.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. H., Balogh, R. D., Cernoch, J. M., and Franchi, C. 1986. Recognition of kin through characteristic body odors. Chem. Senses 11:389–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. H., Makin, J. W., Davis, L. D., and Christensen, K. M. 1992. Breast-fed infants respond to olfactory cues from their own mother and unfamiliar lactating females. Infant Behav. Dev. 15:85–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prasad, B. C. and Reed, R. R. 1999. Chemosensation: Molecular mechanisms in worms and mammals. Trends Genet. 15:150–153.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Purves, D., Augustine, G., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L., Lamantia, A.-S., McNamara, J., and Williams, S. 2001. The chemical senses. in (eds.) Neuroscience, 2nd ed., pp. 317–344. Sinauer Assoc., Sunderland.

  • Rajakaruna, R. S., Brown, J. A., Kaukinen, K., and Miller, K. M. 2001. MHC genes influence the kin recognition in juvenile Atlantic salmon. Am. Zool. 41:1562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, M. J. 1976. Human olfactory communication. Nature 260:520–522.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, M. J., Mendelson, T., and Peeke, H. V. S. 1983. Mothers' identification of their infant's odors. Ethol. Sociobiol. 4:29–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schleidt, M. 1980. Personal odor and non-verbal communication. Ethol. Sociobiol. 1:225–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schleidt, M., Hold, B., and Attili, G. 1981. A cross-cultural study on the attitude towards personal odors. J. Chem. Ecol. 7:19–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verron, H. and Gaultier, C. 1976. Processus olfactifs et structures relationnelles. Psychol. Fr. 21:205–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, P. 1977. Individual discrimination of humans by odor. Physiol. Behav. 19:577–579.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weisfeld, G. E., Czilli, T., Phillips, K. A., Gall, J. A., and Lichtman, C. M. 2003. Possible olfaction-based mechanisms in human kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 85:279–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wysocki, C. J. and Preti, G. 2000. Human body odors and chemical perception. Jpn. J. Taste Smell Res. 7:19–42.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wysocki, C. J. and Preti, G. 2004. Facts, fallacies, fears and frustrations with human pheromones. Anat. Rec. 281A:1201–1211.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Zoto's International, Inc., for their donation of soap, shampoo, and conditioner; Graphic Connections of Geneva for their assistance in obtaining T-shirts; Dr. Jan Nyrop and the Cornell University Office of Statistical Consulting for assistance with statistical calculations; Dr. Charles E. Linn, Jr., Dr. Wendell Roelofs, Dr. Robert Johnston, Prof. Elaine Wethington, and Sarah Demo for comments on the manuscript; and the Cornell Science Inquiry Partnerships, Geneva High School, the NYS Agricultural Experiment Station, and Dr. Wendell Roelofs' laboratory for their support and assistance. This research is supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Teaching Fellows in K-12 Education Program and Cornell University through the Cornell Science Inquiry Partnerships Program.

This research was fully researched, planned, and implemented by the following students: Maria Acquilera, Steve Alaimo, Nadine Amsel, Jenn Anderson, Chris Armstrong, Holly Baker, Mallory Barnes, Katherine Beckley, Michael Bianco, Kelsey Blowers, Ariel Brown, Alexis Carter, Jenn Case, Christi Chacchia, Jason Chan, Amy Chen, Nan Choi, Mike Crisanti, Josh Emerson, Antoine Evans, Ron Eveland, Laura Fratangelo, Kyle Frank, Rob Freeman, Morgan Fryer, Lori Guarneri, David Hall, Henry Heaton, Will Hunt, Chris Iannapollo, Hope James, Erika Kerr, Cassie Legg, Lauren Luzzi, Shanna Marshall, Samonn McCoy, Annette Michaels, Mike Moses, Elyse Nepa, Kim Notebaert, Jeannine Ocasio, Alicia Pearson, Caitlin Pratt, Kyle Shane, Krystle Smallwood, Emily Smith, Meg Spruill, Heather Stewart, Catherine Watts, Jasmin Williams, Nick Wisnieski, Jason Wirth, and Tara Wyszkowski.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Entomology, NYS Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, 14456, USA

    Shannon B. Olsson

  2. Biology Department, Geneva High School, Geneva, NY, 14456, USA

    Joan Barnard & Linda Turri

Authors
  1. Shannon B. Olsson
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joan Barnard
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Linda Turri
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shannon B. Olsson.

Additional information

This research was designed and implemented by 53 high school General Biology and Advanced Placement students who contributed as fellow authors to this project. Refer to Acknowledgments for a full list of names.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Olsson, S.B., Barnard, J. & Turri, L. Olfaction and Identification of Unrelated Individuals: Examination of the Mysteries of Human Odor Recognition. J Chem Ecol 32, 1635–1645 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-006-9098-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-006-9098-8

Keywords