Abstract
The extant leader-member exchange (LMX) literature holds that LMX and LMX differentiation have various consequences on the focal employees’ work-related outcomes. Since the levels of LMX might change as a result of exchanges in work interactions, scholars recently have raised the importance of adopting a more dynamic view in this literature. With the present research, we aim to examine the relationship between the change of LMX, the change of relative LMX (RLMX), and work-related effort. In particular, we focus on the concurrent effects of LMX-and-RLMX changes on the focal employees’ work-related efforts. Drawing on self-regulation theories, we propose that LMX trajectories and RLMX trajectories serve as two independent feedback loop forms regarding the attainability of achieving favorable LMX within teams, which jointly affect the focal employee work efforts. We collected multi-wave and multisource data from 328 employees in 42 workgroups and archival records from an insurance call center. The results indicated that negative LMX change was correlated with higher effort (i.e., the number of calls). Moreover, polynomial regression and response surface analyses revealed a positive relationship between follower LMX–RLMX change incompatibility and work effort. Our dual-dynamic model indicates the importance of considering concurrent changes in both LMX and RLMX to understand better the dynamic processes and outcomes of LMX in work teams.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abraham, C., & Sheeran, P. (2003). Implications of goal theories for the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour. Current Psychology, 22(3), 264–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-003-1021-7
Afshan, G., Serrano-Archimi, C., & Akram, Z. (2022). My LMX standing with my leader as compared to my coworkers: Conditional indirect effect of LMX social comparison. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 43(2), 238–260. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-08-2020-0371
Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Reno, R. R. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Sage Publications.
Anand, S., Vidyarthi, P. R., Liden, R. C., & Rousseau, D. M. (2010). Good citizens in poor-quality relationships: Idiosyncratic deals as a substitute for relationship quality. Academy of Management Journal, 53(5), 970–988. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.54533176
Anderson, C., Hildreth, J. A. D., & Howland, L. (2015). Is the desire for status a fundamental human motive? A review of the empirical literature. Psychological Bulletin, 141(3), 574–601. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038781
Atkinson, J. W. (1958). Towards experimental analysis of human motivation in terms of motives, expectancies, and incentives. In: J. W. Atkinson (Ed.). Motives in fantasy, action and society. Van Nostrand
Bauer, T. N., & Green, S. G. (1996). Development of leader-member exchange: A longitudinal test. Academy of Management Journal, 39(6), 1538–1567. https://doi.org/10.2307/257068
Bliese, P. D., & Ployhart, R. E. (2002). Growth modeling using random coefficient models: Model building, testing, and illustrations. Organizational Research Methods, 5(4), 362–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442802237116
Buengeler, C., Piccolo, R. F., & Locklear, L. R. (2021). LMX differentiation and group outcomes: A framework and review drawing on group diversity insights. SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320930813
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. Springer Verlag.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92(1), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.92.1.111
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge University Press.
Chang, C. H., Johnson, R. E., & Lord, R. G. (2010). Moving beyond discrepancies: The importance of velocity as a predictor of satisfaction and motivation. Human Performance, 23(1), 58–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959280903400226
Chaudhry, A., Vidyarthi, P. R., Liden, R. C., et al. (2021). Two to tango? Implications of alignment and misalignment in leader and follower perceptions of LMX. Journal of Business and Psychology, 36(3), 383–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-020-09690-8
Chen, G., Ployhart, R. E., Thomas, H. C., Anderson, N., & Bliese, P. D. (2011). The power of momentum: A new model of dynamic relationships between job satisfaction change and turnover intentions. Academy of Management Journal, 54(1), 159–181. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.59215089
Chun, J. S., & Choi, J. N. (2014). Members’ needs, intragroup conflict, and group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(3), 437–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036363
Cogliser, C. C., & Schriesheim, C. A. (2000). Exploring work unit context and leader-member exchange: A multi-level perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(5), 487–511. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-1379(200008)21:5%3c487::AID-JOB57%3e3.0.CO;2-P
Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31(6), 874–900. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305279602
Cropanzano. R., Dasborough. M. T., & Weiss. H. M. (2017). Affective events and the development of leader-member exchange. Academy of Management Review, 42, 233–258. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2014.0384
Diel, K., Grelle, S., & Hofmann, W. (2021). A motivational framework of social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120(6), 1415–1430. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000204
Dienesch, R. M., & Liden, R. C. (1986). Leader-member exchange model of leadership: A critique and further development. Academy of Management Review, 11(3), 618–634. https://doi.org/10.2307/258314
Dinh, J. E., Lord, R. G., Gardner, W. L., Meuser, J. D., Liden, R. C., & Hu, J. (2014). Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives. Leadership Quarterly, 25(1), 36–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005
Dulebohn, J. H., Bommer, W. H., Liden, R. C., Brouer, R. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange: Integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 38(6), 1715–1759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311415280
Edwards, J. R. (1996). An examination of competing versions of the person-environment fit approach to stress. Academy of Management Journal, 39(2), 292–339. https://doi.org/10.2307/256782
Eichenseer, V., Schulte, E.-M., Spurk, D., & Kauffeld, S. (2021). Brokers compensate for leader–member exchange differentiation: Behavioral observations in innovation meetings. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 20(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000265
Epitropaki, O., & Martin, R. (2013). Transformational–transactional leadership and upward influence The role of relative leader–member exchanges (rlmx) and perceived organizational support (pos). Leadership Quarterly, 24(2), 299–315 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.11.007
Epitropaki, O., Kapoutsis, I., Ellen, B. P., III., Ferris, G. R., Drivas, K., & Ntotsi, A. (2016). Navigating uneven terrain: The roles of political skill and LMX differentiation in prediction of work relationship quality and work outcomes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(7), 1078–1103. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2100
Erdogan, B., & Liden, R. C. (2002). Social exchange in the workplace: A review of recent developments and future research directions in leader–member exchange theory. In L. L. Neider & C. A. Schriesheim (Eds.), Leadership (pp. 65–114). Information Age.
Ferris, G. R. (1985). Role of leadership in the employee withdrawal process: A constructive replication. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(4), 777–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.70.4.777
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202
Firebaugh, G. (1980). Groups as contexts and frog ponds. In K. H. Roberts & L. Burstein (Eds.), Issues in aggregation (pp. 43–52). Jossey-Bass.
Fulford, D., Johnson, S. L., Llabre, M. M., & Carver, C. S. (2010). Pushing and coasting in dynamic goal pursuit: Coasting is attenuated in bipolar disorder. Psychological Science, 21(7), 1021–1027. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610373372
Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(6), 827–844. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.827
Graen, G. B., & Cashman, J. (1975). A role-making model of leadership in formal organizations: A development approach. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership frontiers (pp. 143–165). Kent State University.
Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. In B. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 175–208). JAI Press.
Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5
Graham, K. A., Dust, S. B., & Ziegert, J. C. (2017). Supervisor-employee power distance incompatibility, gender similarity, and relationship conflict: A test of interpersonal interaction theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(3), 334-346 https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000265
Henderson, D. J., Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., Bommer, W. H., & Tetrick, L. E. (2008). Leader-member exchange, differentiation, and psychological contract fulfillment: A multilevel examination. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1208–1219. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012678
Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer?. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 22(C), 93–136 https://doi.org/10.1016/S00652601(08)603068
Hofmann D. A., Griffin M. A., & Gavin M. B. (2000). The application of hierarchical linear modeling to organizational research. In K. J. Klein, & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations (pp. 467–511). Jossey-Bass.
Hsee, C. K., & Abelson, R. P. (1991). Velocity relation: Satisfaction as a function of the first derivative of outcome over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 341–347. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.60.3.341
Hu, J., & Liden, R. C. (2013). Relative leader–member exchange within team contexts: How and when social comparison impacts individual effectiveness. Personnel Psychology, 66(1), 127–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12008
Hubbard, T. L. (2015). The varieties of momentum-like experience. Psychological Bulletin, 141(6), 1081–1119. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000016
Ilgen, D. R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M. S. (1979). Consequences of individual feedback on behavior in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64(4), 349–371. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.64.4.349
Ilies, R., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Leader-member exchange and citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(1), 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.269
Iso-Ahola, S. E., & Dotson, C. O. (2014). Psychological momentum: Why success breeds success. Review of General Psychology, 18(1), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036406
Johnson, R. E., Chang, C. H., & Lord, R. G. (2006). Moving from cognition to behavior: What the research says. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 381–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.381
Johnson, R. E., Howe, M., & Chang, C. H. (2013). The importance of velocity, or why speed may matter more than distance. Organizational Psychology Review, 3(1), 62–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386612463836
Kauppila, O. (2016). When and how does LMX differentiation influence followers’ work outcomes? The interactive roles of one’s own LMX status and organizational context. Personnel Psychology, 69(2), 357–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12110
Kinicki, A. J., & Vecchio, R. P. (1994). Influence on the quality of supervisor-subordinate relations: The role of time pressure, organizational commitment, and locus of control. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(1), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030-150108
Klein, H. J. (1989). An integrated control theory model of work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 14(2), 150–172. https://doi.org/10.2307/258414
Knight, E. L., & Mehta, P. H. (2017). Hierarchy stability moderates the effect of status on stress and performance in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences - PNAS, 114(1), 78–83. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609811114
Koopman, J., Lanaj, K., & Scott, B. A. (2016). Integrating the bright and dark sides of OCB: A daily investigation of the benefits and costs of helping others. Academy of Management Journal, 59(2), 414–435. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2014.0262
Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Klein, K. J. (2000). A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal, and emergent processes. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations (pp. 3–91). Jossey-Bass.
Lapointe, É., Vandenberghe, C., Ben Ayed, A. K., et al. (2020). Social comparisons, self-conceptions, and attributions: Assessing the self-related contingencies in leader-member exchange relationships. Journal of Business and Psychology, 35(3), 381–402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-019-09628-9
Li, W., Fay, D., Frese, M., Harms, P. D., & Gao, X. Y. (2014). Reciprocal relationship between proactive personality and work characteristics A latent change score approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(5), 948–965. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036169
Liden, R. C., & Graen, G. (1980). Generalizability of the vertical dyad linkage model of leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 23(3), 451–465. https://doi.org/10.2307/255511
Liden, R. C., Sparrowe, R. T., & Wayne, S. J. (1997). Leader-member exchange theory: The past and potential for the future. In G. R. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 15, pp. 47–119). Elsevier Science/JAI Press.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance Prentice-Hall, Inc
Markman, K. D., & Guenther, C. L. (2007). Psychological momentum: Intuitive physics and naive beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(6), 800–812. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301026
Martin, R., Dello Russo, S., Legood, A., & Thomas, G. (2015). LMX differentiation and work‐related outcomes: The Role of LMX comparison processes. In: Academy of management proceedings (Vol. 2015, No. 1, p. 18698). Academy of Management
Martin, R., Guillaume, Y., Thomas, G., Lee, A., & Epitropaki, O. (2016). Leader-member exchange (LMX) and performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 69(1), 67–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12100
Martin, R., Thomas, G., Legood, A., & Dello Russo, S (2018) Leader-member exchange (LMX) differentiation and work outcomes Conceptual clarification and critical review. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(2), 151–168 https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2202
Matta, F. K., & Van Dyne, L. (2020). Understanding the disparate behavioral consequences of LMX differentiation: The role of social comparison emotions. The Academy of Management Review, 45(1), 154–180. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2016.0264
Matta, F. K., Scott, B. A., Koopman, J., & Conlon, D. E. (2015). Does seeing “eye to eye” affect work engagement and organizational citizenship behavior? A role theory perspective on LMX agreement. Academy of Management Journal, 58(6), 1686–1708. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2014.0106
Maynard, M. T., Mathieu, J. E., Rapp, T. L., & Gilson, L. L. (2012). Something(s) old and something(s) new: Modeling drivers of global virtual team effectiveness. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(3), 342–365. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1772
Mcardle, J. J. (2009). Latent variable modeling of differences and changes with longitudinal data. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 577–605. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163612
Pacquiao, M. (2010). Pacman: My story of hope, resilience, and never-say-never determination. Dunham Books.
Pettit, N. C., Sivanathan, N., Gladstone, E., & Marr, J. C. (2013). Rising stars and sinking ships: Consequences of status momentum. Psychological Science, 24(8), 1579–1584. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612473120
Pettit, N. C., Doyle, S. P., Lount, R. B., & To, C. (2016). Cheating to get ahead or to avoid falling behind? The effect of potential negative versus positive status change on unethical behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 137, 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2016.09.005
Reh, S., Tröster, C., & Van Quaquebeke, N. (2017). Keeping (future) rivals down: temporal social comparison predicts coworker social undermining via future status threat and envy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(4), 399–415 https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000281
Reh, S., Van Quaquebeke, N., Tröster, C., & Giessner, S. R. (2022). When and why does status threat at work bring out the best and the worst in us? A temporal social comparison theoryOrganizational Psychology Review, 12(3), 241–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866221100200
Rubenstein, A. L., Allen, D. G., & Bosco, F. A. (2019). What’s past (and present) is prologue: Interactions between justice levels and trajectories predicting behavioral reciprocity. Journal of Management, 45(4), 1569–1594. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317728107
Scandura, T. A., & Graen, G. B. (1984). Moderating effects of initial leader-member exchange status on the effects of a leadership intervention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(3), 428–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.69.3.428
Scheepers, D., Ellemers, N., & Sintemaartensdijk, N. (2009). Suffering from the possibility of status loss Physiological responses to social identity threat in high status groups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39(6), 1075–1092. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.609
Schriesheim, C. A., Castro, S. L., & Yammarino, F. J. (2000). Investigating contingencies: An examination of the impact of span of supervision and upward controllingness on leader-member exchange using traditional and multivariate within- and between-entities analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(5), 659–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.659
Schriesheim, C. A., Neider, L. L., & Scandura, T. A. (1998). Delegation and leader-member exchange: Main effects, moderators, and measurement issues. Academy of Management Journal, 41(3), 298–318. https://doi.org/10.2307/256909
Shanock, L. R., Baran, B. E., Gentry, W. A., Pattison, S. C., & Heggestad, E. D. (2010). Polynomial regression with response surface analysis: A powerful approach for examining moderation and overcoming limitations of difference scores. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(4), 543–554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9317-6
Tremblay, M., Gaudet, M., & Parent-Rocheleau, X. (2021). How and when relative Leader-Member exchange (RLMX) invigorates attendance at work within a context of LMX differentiation. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 28(2), 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051821989289
Tremblay, M., Parent-Rocheleau, X., & Sajadi, P. (2022). Are leaders and followers receiving what they give? A long-term examination of the reciprocal relationship between relative LMX and relative OCB-helping. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 29(3), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518211041629
Tse, H. H. M., Lam, C. K., Lawrence, S. A., & Huang, X. (2013). When my supervisor dislikes you more than me: The effect of dissimilarity in leader–member exchange on coworkers’ interpersonal emotion and perceived help. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(6), 974–988. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033862
Tse, H. M., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2012). Relative leader–member exchange, negative affectivity and social identification: A moderated-mediation examination. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 354–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.08.009
Verbrigghe, J. (2014). Do frogs in small ponds feel big? Examining how and when rlmx impacts employee performance (withdrawn). Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 2014(1), 14112–14112. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.20-14.14112abstract
Vidyarthi, P. R., Liden, R. C., Anand, S., Erdogan, B., & Ghosh, S. (2010). Where do I stand? Examining the effects of leader–member exchange social comparison on employee work behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 849–861. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020033
Walumbwa, F. O., Cropanzano, R., & Goldman, B. M. (2011). How leader–member exchange influences effective work behaviors: Social exchange and internal-external efficacy perspectives. Personnel Psychology, 64(3), 739–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01224.x
Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C. (1997). Perceived organizational support and leader- member exchange: A social exchange perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 82–111. https://doi.org/10.2307/257021
Funding
This work is supported by NSFC grants 91724102 and 31971013 and Beijing Well-being Foundation grant #0020344.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lu, L., Wang, L. & Johnson, R.E. The Joint Fluctuations of LMX and Relative LMX Predict Follower Work Effort: A Dual-Dynamic Perspective. J Bus Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-024-09940-z
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-024-09940-z