Abstract
Integrating the stereotype content model, attribution theory, and social exchange theory, we examined the perceptions underlying bias towards overweight supervisors and the effect of supervisor weight on the workplace behaviors of subordinates. Study 1 (N = 204) confirmed that supervisors are subject to weight bias, such that supervisor weight is negatively related to subordinates’ perceptions of supervisor competence. In turn, Study 2 (N = 829) and Study 3 (N = 226) demonstrated that supervisor weight indirectly influences subordinates’ perceptions of the subordinate-supervisor relationship (leader-member exchange) and important reciprocal workplace behaviors (organizational citizenship behaviors). Furthermore, in predicting perceptions of competence, we found no interaction between supervisor weight and supervisor status, subordinate weight, or supervisor gender. We also found that supervisor weight does not influence perceptions of supervisor warmth and that the relationship between supervisor weight and perceptions of supervisor competence is linear.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16, 74–94.
Beaman, L., Chattopadhyay, R., Duflo, E., Pande, R., & Topalova, P. (2009). Powerful women: Does exposure reduce bias? The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124, 1497–1540.
Bernerth, J., Armenakis, A., Feild, H., Giles, W., & Walker, H. (2007). Leader-member social exchange (LMSX): Development and validation of a scale. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28, 979–1003.
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. John Wiley.
Bulik, C. M., Wade, T. D., Heath, A. C., Martin, N. G., Stunkard, A. J., & Eaves, L. J. (2001). Relating body mass index to figural stimuli: Population-based normative data for Caucasians. International Journal of Obesity, 25, 1517–1524.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015). Table 1. Civilian labor force by age, gender, race, and ethnicity, 1994, 2004, 2014, and projected 2024. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/ecopro.t01.htm
Carr, D., & Friedman, M. A. (2005). Is obesity stigmatizing? Body weight, perceived discrimination, and psychological wellbeing in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46, 244–259.
Colquitt, J. A., Baer, M. D., Long, D. M., & Halvorsen-Ganepola, M. D. K. (2014). Scale indicators of social exchange relationships: A comparison of relative content validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99, 599–618.
Crandall, C. S. (1994). Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 882–894.
Crandall, C. S., & Eshleman, A. (2003). A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 414–446.
Crandall, C. S., & Reser, A. H. (2005). Attributions and weight-based prejudice. In K. D. Brownell, R. M. Puhl, M. B. Schwartz, & L. Rudd (Eds.), Weight bias: Nature, consequences, and remedies (pp. 83–96). The Guilford Press.
Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31, 874–900.
Daníelsdóttir, S., O’Brien, K. S., & Ciao, A. (2010). Anti-fat prejudice reduction: A review of published studies. Obesity Facts, 3, 47–58.
Dulebohn, J. H., Bommer, W. H., Liden, R. C., Brouer, R. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange: Integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 38, 1715–1759.
Dwertmann, D. J. G., & Boehm, A. A. (2016). Status matters: The asymmetric effects of supervisor-subordinate disability incongruence and climate for inclusion. Academy of Management, 59, 44–64.
Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchinson, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500–507.
Finkelstein, L. M., Demuth, R. L., & Sweeney, D. L. (2007). Bias against overweight job applicants: Further explorations of when and why. Human Resource Management, 46, 203–222.
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 77–83.
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878–902.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.
Fox, S., Spector, P. E., & Miles, D. (2001). Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) in response to job stressors and organizational justice: Some mediator and moderator tests for autonomy and emotions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 291–309.
Gates, D. M., Succop, P., Brehm, B. J., Gillespie, G. L., & Sommers, B. D. (2008). Obesity and presenteeism: The impact of body mass index on workplace productivity. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 50, 39–45.
Gilbert, D., King, G., Pettigrew, S., & Wilson, T. (2016). Comment on ‘Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science.’ Science, 351, 1037a–1037b.
Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity. American Sociological Review, 25, 165–167.
Graen, G., & Cashman, J. (1975). A role-making model of leadership in formal organizations: A developmental approach. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership frontiers (pp. 143–165). Kent State University Press.
Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. A. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. In L. L. Cummings & B. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 9, pp. 175–208). JAI Press.
Green, S. G., Anderson, S. E., & Shivers, S. L. (1996). Demographic and organizational influences on leader-member exchange and related work attitudes. Organizational and Human Decision Processes, 66, 203–214.
Grandey, A. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1999). The conservation of resources model applied to work-family conflict and strain. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 350–370.
Hair, J. F., Black, B., Babin, B., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2005). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Henderson, A. A., Foster, G. C., Matthews, R. A., & Zickar, M. J. (2020). A psychometric assessment of OCB: Clarifying the distinction between OCB and CWB and developing a revised OCB measure. Journal of Business and Psychology, 35, 697–712.
Johns, G. (2006). The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31, 386–408.
Johnson, M. A., & Schminke, M. (2020). Thinking big: An integrative conceptual review of the workplace consequences of obesity and a theoretical extension of the processes that create them. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105, 671–692.
King, E. B., Rogelberg, S. G., Hebl, M. R., Braddy, P. W., Shanock, L. R., Doerer, S. C., & McDowell-Larsen, S. (2016). Waistlines and ratings of executives: Does executive status overcome obesity stigma? Human Resource Management, 55, 283–300.
Landers, R. N., & Behrend, T. S. (2015). An inconvenient truth: Arbitrary distinctions between organizational, Mechanical Turk, and other convenience samples. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8, 142–164.
Lassiter, G. D., Geers, A. L., Munhall, P. J., Ploutz-Snyder, R. J., & Breitenbecher, D. L. (2002). Illusory causation: Why it occurs. Psychological Science, 13, 299–305.
Latner, J. D., O’Brien, K. S., Durso, L. E., Brinkman, L. A., & McDonald, T. (2008). Weighing obesity stigma: The relative strength of different forms of bias. International Journal of Obesity, 32, 1145–1152.
Levine, E. E., & Schweitzer, M. (2015). The affective and interpersonal consequences of obesity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 127, 66–84.
Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Stilwell, D. (1993). A longitudinal study on the early development of leader-member exchanges. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 662–674.
Martin, A. (2017, August). 49 states legally allow employers to discriminate based on weight. Time. http://time.com/4883176/weight-discrimination-workplace-laws/
Matthews, R. A., & Toumbeva, T. H. (2015). Lagged effects of family-supportive organization perceptions and supervision in relation to generalized work-related resources. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20, 301–313.
Maxwell, S. E., Lau, M. Y., & Howard, G. S. (2015). Is psychology suffering from a replication crisis? What does “failure to replicate” really mean? American Psychologist, 70, 487–498.
Moorman, R. H., Blakely, G. L., & Niehoff, B. P. (1998). Does perceived organizational support mediate the relationship between procedural justice and organizational citizenship behavior? Academy of Management Journal, 41, 351–357.
Mount, M., Ilies, R., & Johnson, E. (2006). Relationship of personality traits and counterproductive work behaviors: The mediating effects of job satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 59, 591–622.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
Neuberg, S. L., Smith, D. M., Hoffman, J. C., & Russell, F. J. (1994). When we observe stigmatized and “normal” individuals interacting: Stigma by association. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 196–209.
Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., & Flegal, K. M. (2014). Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011–2012. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 311, 806–814.
Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington Books.
Organ, D. W., & Ryan, K. (1995). A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behavior. Personnel Psychology, 48, 775–802.
Owen, N., Healy, G. N., Matthews, C. E., & Dunstan, D. W. (2010). Too much sitting: The population-health science of sedentary behavior. Exercise Sport Science Review, 38, 105–113.
Papadopoulos, S., & Brennan, L. (2015). Correlates of weight stigma in adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic literature review. Obesity, 23, 1743–1760.
Pelled, L. H., & Xin, K. R. (2000). Relational demography and relationship quality in two cultures. Organization Studies, 21, 1077–1094.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method bias in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 513–563.
Podsakoff, N. P., Whiting, S. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & Blume, B. D. (2009). Individual- and organizational-level consequences of organizational citizenship behaviors: A meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 122–141.
Puhl, R. M., Andreyeva, T., & Brownell, K. D. (2008a). Perceptions of weight discrimination: Prevalence and comparison to race and gender discrimination in America. International Journal of Obesity, 32, 992–1000.
Puhl, R. M., Moss-Racusin, C. A., Schwartz, M. B., & Brownell, K. D. (2008b). Weight stigmatization and bias reduction: Perspectives of overweight and obese adults. Health Education Research, 23, 347–358.
Puhl, R. M., Schwartz, M. B., & Brownell, K. D. (2005). Impact of perceived consensus on stereotypes about obese people: A new approach for reducing bias. Health Psychology, 24, 517–525.
Randle, N. W. (2012). Can generalized self-efficacy overcome the effects of workplace weight discrimination? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42, 751–775.
Re, D. E., Dzhelyova, M., Holzleitner, I. J., Tigue, C. C., Feinberg, D. R., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Apparent height and body mass index influence perceived leadership ability in three-dimensional faces. Perception, 41, 1477–1485.
Re, D. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2013). The effects of facial adiposity on attractiveness and perceived leadership ability. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67, 676–686.
Roehling, M. V., Pichler, S., & Bruce, T. A. (2013). Moderators of the effect of weight on job-related outcomes: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, 237–252.
Roehling, M. V., Roehling, P. V., & Odland, L. M. (2008). Investigating the validity of stereotypes about overweight employees: The relationship between body weight and normal personality traits. Group & Organization Management, 33, 392–424.
Roehling, P. V., Roehling, M. V., Vandlen, J. D., Blazek, J., & Guy, W. C. (2009). Weight discrimination and the glass ceiling effect among top U.S. CEOS. Equal Opportunities International, 28, 179–196.
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In Leonard Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. (Vol. 10). Academic Press.
Rotundo, M., & Sackett, P. R. (2002). The relative importance of task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance to global ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 66–80.
Rudolph, C. W., Wells, C. L., Weller, M. D., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). A meta-analysis of empirical studies of weight-based bias in the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74, 1–10.
Ruggs, E. N., Hebl, M. R., Law, C., Cox, C. B., Roehling, M. V., Wiener, R. L., & Barron, L. (2013). Gone fishing: I-O psychologists’ missed opportunities to understand marginalized employees’ experiences with discrimination. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 6, 39–60.
Salanova, M., Agut, S., & Peiro, J. M. (2005). Linking organizational resources and work engagement to employee performance and customer loyalty: The mediation of service climate. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1217–1227.
Schwartz, M. B., Vartanian, L. R., Nosek, B. A., & Brownell, K. D. (2006). The influence of one’s own body weight on implicit and explicit anti-fat bias. Obesity, 14, 440–447.
Scott, K. A., & Brown, D. J. (2006). Female first, leader second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 101, 230–242.
Shepherd, L. C. (2009). Obesity costs spark hunt for solutions that work. Employee Benefits News, 23, 34.
Sliter, K. A., Sliter, M. T., Withrow, S. A., & Jex, S. M. (2012). Employee adiposity and incivility: Establishing a link and identifying demographic moderators and negative consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17, 409–424.
Sørensen, T. I. A., & Sonne-Holm, S. (1985). Intelligence test performance in obesity in relation to educational attainment and parental social class. Journal of Biosocial Science, 17, 379–387.
Stewart, T., Latu, I., Kawakami, K., & Myers, A. (2010). Consider the situation: Reducing automatic stereotyping through Situational Attribution Training. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 221–225.
Stunkard, A. J., Sorensen, T., & Schulsinger, F. (1983). Use of the Danish Adoption Register for the study of obesity and thinness. Research Publications - Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease, 60, 115–120.
Tafarodi, R. W., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2001). Two-dimensional self-esteem: Theory and measurement. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 653–673.
Teachman, B. A., Gapinski, K. D., Bownell, K. D., Rawlins, M., & Jeyaram, S. (2003). Demonstrations of implicit anti-fat bias: The impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy. Healthy Psychology, 22, 68–78.
United States Census Bureau. (2012). Employed civilians by occupation—states 2010. http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0617.pdf
Vanhove, A., & Gordon, R. A. (2014). Weight discrimination in the workplace: A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between weight and work-related outcomes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44, 12–22.
Volmer, J., Niessen, C., Spurk, D., Linz, A., & Abele, A. E. (2011). Reciprocal relationships between leader-member exchange (LMX) and job satisfaction: A cross-lagged analysis. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 60, 522–545.
Wang, Y., & Beydoun, M. A. (2007). The obesity epidemic in the United States – gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiologic Reviews, 29, 6–28.
Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., & Liden, R. C. (1997). Perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange: A social exchange perspective. The Academy of Management Journal, 40, 82–111.
Williams, L. J., & Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 17, 601–617.
Wojciszke, B., Bazinska, R., & Jaworski, M. (1998). On the dominance of moral categories in impression formation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1245–1257.
World Obesity Federation (2021). Prevalence of obesity. https://www.worldobesity.org/about/about-obesity/prevalence-of-obesity
Zitek, E. M., & Hebl, M. R. (2007). The role of social norm clarity in the influenced expression of prejudice over time. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 867–876.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Henderson, A.A., Matthews, R.A., McKersie, S.J. et al. Leading When Overweight: the Influence of Supervisor Body Weight on Subordinates’ Perceptions and Citizenship Behaviors. J Bus Psychol 37, 615–631 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09763-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-021-09763-2