Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Qualitative Study of Daydreaming Episodes at Work

Journal of Business and Psychology volume 35, pages 203–222 (2020)Cite this article

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to explore the experiential elements of mind wandering at work and prompt the formation of new research questions addressing this experiential perspective. To do this, we use an episodic framework for mind wandering that is grounded in the subjective work experience and examines mind wandering holistically. Thirty full-time employees participated in semi-structured qualitative interviews exploring the experience of mind wandering at work. Responses were transcribed and then coded using conventional content analysis. Data collection and coding proceeded in an iterative process, as described by Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). This qualitative study provides descriptive evidence for the experiential components of a mind wandering episode (onset, termination cues, and outcomes). Within each of these components, additional themes are identified, discussed, and connected to person- and organization-centric work processes. The thematic organization of daydreaming episodes reveals new aspects of the subjective experience of daydreaming that can be explored further. To aid this, we provide a framework for investigating the inter-relationships between these aspects. The identification of these subjective experiences paves the way for novel research investigating how daydreams, and the accompanying subjective experience, inform momentary work processes. This paper provides a unique subjective experience to understanding mind wandering at work. By directly addressing the phenomenology of mind wandering at work, we encourage a new perspective to the mind wandering phenomena and encourage the development of new research questions.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Notes

  1. While daydreams undoubtedly have a beginning, middle, and end, what occurs during a daydream is outside of the scope of the current study. The current paper focuses on work characteristics that lead to daydream onset, termination, and perceived outcomes. We believe that the experiential aspect of daydreaming is both interesting and important, but that it is not relevant to the present paper.

References

  • Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Smallwood, J., & Spreng, R. N. (2014). The default network and self-generated thought: Component processes, dynamic control, and clinical relevance. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1316, 29–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12360.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Antrobus, J. S., Singer, J. L., & Greenberg, S. (1966). Studies in the stream of consciousness: Experimental enhancement and suppression of spontaneous cognitive processes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 23(2), 399–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baars, B. J. (2010). Spontaneous repetitive thought can be adaptive: Postscript on “mind wandering”. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 208–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Mrazek, M. D., Kam, J. W., Franklin, M. S., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). Inspired by distraction: Mind wandering facilitates creative incubation. Psychological Science, 23(10), 1117–1122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612446024.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baird, B., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. (2010). I can shake that feeling: Positive mind-wandering prevents the deterioration of mood. Paper presented at the Poster presented at Towards a Science of Consciousness conference, Tucson, AZ.

  • Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(6), 351–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beal, D. J., Weiss, H. M., Barros, E., & MacDermid, S. M. (2005). An episodic process model of affective influences on performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1054–1068.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D., Ray, W. J., & Stober, J. (1998). Worry: A cognitive phenomenon intimately linked to affective, physiological, and interpersonal behavioral processes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22(6), 561–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D., Robinson, E., Pruzinsky, T., & DePree, J. A. (1983). Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21(1), 9–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, F. B. (1989). A four-factor model of perceived control: Avoiding, coping, obtaining, and savoring. Journal of Personality, 57(4), 773–797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christoff, K., Gordon, A. M., Smallwood, J., Smith, R., & Schooler, J. W. (2009). Experience sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(21), 8719–8724. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0900234106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, P., & Bortolussi, M. (2013). Construction, integration, and mind wandering in reading. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Engert, V., Smallwood, J., & Singer, T. (2014). Mind your thoughts: Associations between self-generated thoughts and stress-induced and baseline levels of cortisol and alpha-amylase. Biological Psychology, 103, 283–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, G. C., Joormann, J., & Johnson, S. L. (2008). Responses to positive affect: A self-report measure of rumination and dampening. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32(4), 507–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-006-9083-0.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, S., D’Mello, S., & Graesser, A. C. (2013). Mind wandering while reading easy and difficult texts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(3), 586–592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M. S., Mrazek, M. D., Anderson, C. L., Smallwood, J., Kingstone, A., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). The silver lining of a mind in the clouds: Interesting musings are associated with positive mood while mind-wandering. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(583), 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M. S., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2011). Catching the mind in flight: Using behavioral indices to detect mindless reading in real time. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(5), 992–997.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fritz, C., Lam, C. F., & Spreitzer, G. M. (2011). It’s the little things that matter: An examination of knowledge workers’ energy management. Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(3), 28–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S. (2005). Recovery, health, and job performance: Effects of weekend experiences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(3), 187–199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S. (2006). Recovery, well-being, and performance-related outcomes: The role of workload and vacation experiences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(4), 936–945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gabriel, A. S., Diefendorff, J. M., Bennett, A. A., & Sloan, M. D. (2017). It’s about time: The promise of continuous rating assessments for the organizational sciences. Organizational Research Methods, 20(1), 32–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giambra, L. M. (1989). Task-unrelated-thought frequency as a function of age: A laboratory study. Psychology and Aging, 4(2), 136–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsieh, H.-F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hülsheger, U. R., Alberts, H. J. E. M., Feinholdt, A., & Lang, J. W. B. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 310–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., Clark, M., & Schwartz, M. F. (1976). Duration of the effect of good mood on helping: Footprints in the sands of time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(3), 385–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. D., & Balota, D. A. (2012). Mind-wandering in younger and older adults: Converging evidence from the sustained attention to response task and reading for comprehension. Psychology and Aging, 27(1), 106–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jha, A. P., Stanley, E. A., Kiyonaga, A., Wong, L., & Gelfand, L. (2010). Examining the protective effects of mindfulness training on working memory capacity and affective experience. Emotion, 10(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018438.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S. L., McKenzie, G., & McMurrich, S. (2008). Ruminative responses to negative and positive affect among students diagnosed with bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32(5), 702–713.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007b). For whom the mind wanders, and when: An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychological Science, 18(7), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Hambrick, D. Z., & Engle, R. W. (2007a). Variation in working memory capacity as variation in executive attention and control. In A. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 21–48). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kane, M. J., & McVay, J. C. (2012). What mind wandering reveals about executive-control abilities and failures. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(5), 348–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330(6006), 932.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., Park, Y., & Headrick, L. (2018). Daily micro-breaks and job performance: General work engagement as a cross-level moderator. The Journal of Applied Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000308

  • Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2017). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klinger, E. C. (1971). Structure and functions of fantasy. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kvavilashvili, L., & Mandler, G. (2004). Out of one’s mind: A study of involuntary semantic memories. Cognitive Psychology, 48(1), 47–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, D. B., Smallwood, J., & Davidson, R. J. (2012). The persistence of thought: Evidence for a role of working memory in the maintenance of task-unrelated thinking. Psychological Science, 23(4), 375–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611431465.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1996). Some ruminative thoughts. In R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition: Ruminative thoughts (Vol. 9, pp. 1–47). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 387–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, M. F., Norton, M. I., Van Horn, J. D., Wegner, D. M., Grafton, S. T., & Macrae, C. N. (2007). Wandering minds: The default network and stimulus-independent thought. Science, 315(5810), 393–395. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1131295.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2009). Conducting the train of thought: Working memory capacity, goal neglect, and mind wandering in an executive-control task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(1), 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2010). Does mind wandering reflect executive function or executive failure? Comment on Smallwood and Schooler (2006) and Watkins (2008). Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 188–197; discussion 198-207. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018298.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2012). Why does working memory capacity predict variation in reading comprehension? On the influence of mind wandering and executive attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 141(2), 302–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mooneyham, B. W., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). The costs and benefits of mind wandering: A review. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 11–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2002). Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690200100202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. Psychological Science, 24(5), 776–781. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612459659.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., Franklin, M. S., Chin, J. M., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2012a). The role of mind-wandering in measurements of general aptitude. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 788–798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2012b). Mindfulness and mind-wandering: Finding convergence through opposing constructs. Emotion, 12(3), 442–448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 504–511.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruby, F. J., Smallwood, J., Sackur, J., & Singer, T. (2013). Is self-generated thought a means of social problem solving? Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 962.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G. (1984). Stress, anxiety, and cognitive interference: Reactions to tests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 929–938.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schooler, J. W. (2002). Re-representing consciousness: Dissociations between experience and meta-consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Science, 6(8), 339–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schooler, J. W., Reichle, E. D., & Halpern, D. V. (2004). Zoning out while reading: Evidence for dissociations between experience and metaconsciousness. In D. T. Levin (Ed.), Thinking and seeing: Visual metacognition in adults and children (pp. 203–226). Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schooler, J. W., Smallwood, J., Christoff, K., Handy, T. C., Reichle, E. D., & Sayette, M. A. (2011). Meta-awareness, perceptual decoupling and the wandering mind. Trends in Cognitive Science, 15(7), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. L. (1966). Daydreaming. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J. (2013a). Distinguishing the how from why the mind wanders: A process-occurrence framework for self generated though. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 519–535.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J. (2013b). Searching for the elements of thought: Reply to Franklin, Mrazek, Broadway, and Schooler 2013. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 542–547. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031019.

  • Smallwood, J., & Andrews-Hanna, J. (2013). Not all minds that wander are lost: The importance of a balanced perspective on the mind-wandering state. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(411), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., Beach, E., Schooler, J. W., & Handy, T. C. (2008b). Going AWOL in the brain: Mind wandering reduces cortical analysis of external events. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(3), 458–469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., Davies, J. B., Heim, D., Finnigan, F., Sudberry, M., O'Connor, R., & Obonsawin, M. (2004). Subjective experience and the attentional lapse: Task engagement and disengagement during sustained attention. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 657–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2004.06.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., Fitzgerald, A., Miles, L. K., & Phillips, L. H. (2009). Shifting moods, wandering minds: Negative moods lead the mind to wander. Emotion, 9(2), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., McSpadden, M., & Schooler, J. W. (2008a). When attention matters: The curious incident of the wandering mind. Memory & Cognition, 36(6), 1144–1150. https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.36.6.1144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., Mrazek, M. D., & Schooler, J. W. (2011). Medicine for the wandering mind: Mind wandering in medical practice. Medical Education, 45, 1072–1080.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., & O'Connor, R. C. (2011). Imprisoned by the past: Unhappy moods lead to a retrospective bias to mind wandering. Cognition & Emotion, 25(8), 1481–1490. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.545263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., O'Connor, R. C., Sudbery, M. V., & Obonsawin, M. (2007). Mind-wandering and dysphoria. Cognition & Emotion, 21(4), 816–842. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930600911531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2006). The restless mind. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 946–958. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.946.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2015). The science of mind wandering: Empirically navigating the stream of consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 487–518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonnentag, S. (2001). Work, recovery activities, and individual well-being: A diary study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(3), 196–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonnentag, S. (2003). Recovery, work engagement, and proactive behavior: A new look at the interface between nonwork and work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 518–528. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonnentag, S., Binnewies, C., & Mojza, E. J. (2008). “Did you have a nice evening?” A day-level study on recovery experiences, sleep, and affect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 674–684. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.674.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonnentag, S., Binnewies, C., & Mojza, E. J. (2010a). Staying well and engaged when demands are high: The role of psychological detachment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 965–976.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonnentag, S., Kuttler, I., & Fritz, C. (2010b). Job stressors, emotional exhaustion, and need for recovery: A multi-source study on the benefits of psychological detachment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(3), 355–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spreng, R. N. (2012). The fallacy of a “task-negative” network. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 145.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stawarczyk, D., Majerus, S., Van der Linden, M., & D'Argembeau, A. (2012). Using the daydreaming frequency scale to investigate the relationships between mind-wandering, psychological well-being, and present-moment awareness. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(363), 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Procedures and techniques for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sudman, S., & Bradburn, N. M. (1973). Effects of time and memory factors on response in surveys. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 68, 805–815.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, J. D., Dritschel, B. H., Taylor, M. J., Proctor, L., Lloyd, C. A., Nimmo-Smith, I., & Baddeley, A. D. (1995). Stimulus-independent thought depends on central executive resources. Memory & Cognition, 23(5), 551–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trougakos, J. P., & Hideg, I. (2009). Momentary work recovery: The role of within-day work breaks. Current Perspectives on Job-Stress Recovery, 7, 37–84. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1479-3555(2009)0000007005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unsworth, N., & McMillan, B. D. (2013). Mind wandering and reading comprehension: Examining the roles of working memory capacity, interest, motivation, and topic experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39(3), 832.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vinski, M. T., & Watter, S. (2013). Being a grump only makes things worse: A transactional account of acute stress on mind wandering. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(730), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 163–206.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Waye, K. P., Bengtsson, J., Rylander, R., Hucklebridge, F., Evans, P., & Clow, A. (2002). Low frequency noise enhances cortisol among noise sensitive subjects during work performance. Life Sciences, 70(7), 745–758.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waye, K. P., Rylander, R., Benton, S., & Leventhall, H. (1997). Effects on performance and work quality due to low frequency ventilation noise. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 205(4), 467–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, H. M., & Rupp, D. E. (2011). Experiencing work: An essay on a person-centric work psychology. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 4(1), 83–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, M. D., & Marsh, E. E. (2006). Content analysis: A flexible methodology. Library Trends, 55(1), 22–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacher, H., Brailsford, H. A., & Parker, S. L. (2014). Micro-breaks matter: A diary study on the effects of energy management strategies on occupational well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 85(3), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.08.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Georgia Institute of Technology, 654 Cherry St NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA

    Kelsey L. Merlo & Howard M. Weiss

  2. University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1300 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA

    Katherine E. Wiegand

  3. U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 6000 6th Street, Ft Belvoir, VA, 22060-5610, USA

    Stefanie P. Shaughnessy

  4. George Mason University, 440 University Drive, 3F5, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA

    Lauren E. Kuykendall

Authors
  1. Kelsey L. Merlo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Katherine E. Wiegand
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Stefanie P. Shaughnessy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lauren E. Kuykendall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Howard M. Weiss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kelsey L. Merlo.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix: Interview Protocol

Appendix: Interview Protocol

Introduction

Most people find their mind wanders at work. There are a lot of terms for it. They space out, they daydream, they zone out, they drift off, etc. We would like to talk to you about those types of experiences today. We would like to find out more about the experience as a whole. What your daydreams are like and what you think of the experience. While we will commonly just say “daydream,” please know that we mean any of the above and are referring specifically to when you daydream at work. While we would appreciate it if you could give us detailed information, please only give us the amount of information that you feel comfortable sharing. If at any point you do not want to answer a question, you do not have to. Take as much time as you need to respond.

Iteration 1

  1. 1.

    How often in a typical workday you find yourself thinking about things other than the immediate task you are working on?

  2. 2.

    Are your daydreams generally work-related or unrelated to work?

  3. 3.

    How long do you typically find yourself working before your mind wanders on any given day?

  4. 4.

    We would like to start off by focusing specifically on those times when daydreaming is unintentional. What are your unintentional daydreams are usually about?

    1. a.

      What topics do you unintentionally dream about?

    2. b.

      Are your unintentional daydreams more past-focused or future-focused?

    3. c.

      How do you feel after unintentionally daydreaming?

    4. d.

      How vivid are your unintentional daydreams?

    5. e.

      Can you describe the sensory experience of an unintentional daydream?

    6. f.

      Do you feel a certain way before an unintentional daydream occurs?

    7. g.

      Can you please estimate how long your unintentional daydreams last?

    8. h.

      When your mind stops wandering, what usually brings you out of it?

    9. i.

      After an unintentional daydream, how difficult or easy is it for you to refocus?

    10. j.

      How do you feel after the unintentional daydream is over?

  5. 5.

    Next, we would like to focus on those times when daydreaming is intentional. What are your intentional daydreams are usually about?

    1. a.

      Repeat questions 4a–4j.

  6. 6.

    Anything else to describe your daydreaming experiences?

  7. 7.

    We would just like to finish up by talking a little bit more about a specific type of daydreaming. Specifically, we would like to talk about work daydreams that occur at home.

    1. a.

      Do you ever daydream about work things while you are home?

    2. b.

      Are there ever days where it’s difficult for you to shut off work thoughts?

    3. c.

      Are there specific types of work things you think about when you are at home?

    4. d.

      How often do you talk about your workday with others after the day is over?

    5. e.

      Are there certain things you do to help you stop thinking about work when the day is over?

Iteration 2

  1. 1.

    What does daydreaming mean to you?

  2. 2.

    Could you please take me through a typical daydreaming experience of yours?

    1. a.

      If you can remember, what typically happens before the daydream?

  3. 3.

    What situations lead to you daydreaming?

    1. a.

      Is it physical, mental, emotional?

    2. b.

      How often do those occur?

  4. 4.

    What other things lead you to daydream at work?

  5. 5.

    Why do you daydream at work?

    1. a.

      What does it do for you?

  6. 6.

    How did the daydreaming experience help you?

  7. 7.

    How did the daydreaming experience hurt you?

  8. 8.

    Would you tell me about another daydreaming experience?

    1. a.

      If you can remember, what was happening before the daydream?

  9. 9.

    What purpose does daydreaming serve?

  10. 10.

    What are the benefits, to you, when you daydream?

  11. 11.

    What are the consequences of daydreaming?

  12. 12.

    Could you please give an example of a less typical daydreaming experience?

    1. a.

      What made it different from your typical daydreaming experiences?

    2. b.

      What was happening before the daydream?

  13. 13.

    How do daydreams help you escape your work environment?

  14. 14.

    After using a daydream to escape, how do you feel?

    1. a.

      Is it a physical feeling, a mental feeling, an emotional feeling?

    2. b.

      What is the experience like?

  15. 15.

    Do different types of mind wandering or daydreaming experiences help you in different ways?

  16. 16.

    What are some ways in which you use daydreaming to your advantage while at work?

  17. 17.

    Can you please describe, using your five senses, the experience of daydreaming?

    1. a.

      What do you hear, see, smell, feel, and taste?

  18. 18.

    How is being immersed in a daydream differ from reality?

  19. 19.

    How is being immersed in a daydream similar to reality?

  20. 20.

    How does daydreaming impact your perception of time?

  21. 21.

    How often do you “catch” yourself unintentionally daydreaming?

    1. a.

      When do you most often unintentionally daydream?

  22. 22.

    Please describe a situation where you realized you were unintentionally daydreaming.

    1. a.

      What was happening before you daydream?

    2. b.

      What led you to catch yourself?

    3. c.

      Why did this daydream end?

  23. 23.

    Please describe a different situation where you realized you were unintentionally daydreaming.

    1. a.

      What was happening before your daydream?

    2. b.

      What led you to catch yourself daydreaming?

      1. i.

        If different from the above answer ask: “What is different about this ‘catching’ experience compared to your first example?”

    3. c.

      Why did this daydream end?

  24. 24.

    Can you please describe more fully what it is like to “catch” yourself daydreaming?

    1. a.

      Please describe, using your five senses, what it is like to “catch” yourself daydreaming.

  25. 25.

    What are the different ways you seem to “catch” yourself?

  26. 26.

    How do you become aware that you are daydreaming?

Iteration 3

  1. 1.

    What does daydreaming mean to you?

  2. 2.

    Could you please take me through a typical daydreaming experience of yours?

    1. a.

      If you can remember, what typically happens before the daydream?

  3. 3.

    What situations lead to you daydreaming?

    1. a.

      Is it physical, mental, emotional?

    2. b.

      How often do those occur?

  4. 4.

    What other things lead you to daydream at work?

  5. 5.

    Why do you daydream at work?

    1. a.

      What does it do for you?

  6. 6.

    How did the daydreaming experience help you?

  7. 7.

    How did the daydreaming experience hurt you?

  8. 8.

    Would you tell me about another daydreaming experience?

    1. a.

      If you can remember, what was happening before the daydream?

  9. 9.

    What purpose does daydreaming serve?

  10. 10.

    What are the benefits, to you, when you daydream?

  11. 11.

    What are the consequences of daydreaming?

  12. 12.

    Could you please give an example of a less typical daydreaming experience?

    1. a.

      What made it different from your typical daydreaming experiences?

    2. b.

      What was happening before the daydream?

  13. 13.

    How do daydreams help you escape your work environment?

  14. 14.

    After using a daydream to escape, how do you feel?

    1. a.

      Is it a physical feeling, a mental feeling, an emotional feeling?

    2. b.

      What is the experience like?

  15. 15.

    Do different types of mind wandering or daydreaming experiences help you in different ways?

  16. 16.

    What are some ways in which you use daydreaming to your advantage while at work?

  17. 17.

    Can you describe a simple daydream you experience?

  18. 18.

    Can you describe an elaborate daydream that you experience?

    1. a.

      How are these two types of daydreams different?

  19. 19.

    Can you please describe, using your five senses, the experience of daydreaming?

    1. a.

      What do you hear, see, smell, feel, and taste?

  20. 20.

    How is being immersed in a daydream differ from reality?

  21. 21.

    How is being immersed in a daydream similar to reality?

  22. 22.

    How does daydreaming impact your perception of time?

  23. 23.

    Does daydreaming impact your awareness of your surroundings?

    1. a.

      Do you “zone out” at work?

    2. b.

      How is “zoning out” different from daydreaming?

    3. c.

      How is “zoning out” similar to daydreaming?

  24. 24.

    What is it like to get “lost” in a daydream?

  25. 25.

    What is it like to “find” yourself in a daydream?

  26. 26.

    How often do you “catch” yourself unintentionally daydreaming?

    1. a.

      When do you most often unintentionally daydream?

  27. 27.

    Please describe a situation where you realized you were unintentionally daydreaming.

    1. a.

      What was happening before you daydream?

    2. b.

      What led you to catch yourself?

    3. c.

      Why did this daydream end?

  28. 28.

    Please describe a different situation where you realized you were unintentionally daydreaming.

    1. a.

      What was happening before your daydream?

    2. b.

      What led you to catch yourself daydreaming?

      1. ii.

        If different from the above answer ask: “What is different about this ‘catching’ experience compared to your first example?”

    3. c.

      Why did this daydream end?

  29. 29.

    Can you please describe more fully what it is like to “catch” yourself daydreaming?

    1. a.

      Please describe, using your five senses, what it is like to “catch” yourself daydreaming.

  30. 30.

    What are the different ways you seem to “catch” yourself?

  31. 31.

    How do you become aware that you are daydreaming?

Iteration 4

  1. 1.

    What does daydreaming mean to you?

  2. 2.

    Can you describe a simple daydream you have experienced?

  3. 3.

    Can you describe an elaborate daydream that you have experienced?

  4. 4.

    Can you please describe, using your five senses, the experience of daydreaming?

    1. a.

      What do you hear, see, smell, feel, and taste?

  5. 5.

    How is being immersed in a daydream different from reality?

  6. 6.

    How is being immersed in a daydream similar to reality?

  7. 7.

    How does daydreaming impact your perception of time?

  8. 8.

    Does daydreaming impact your awareness of your surroundings?

    1. a.

      Do you “zone out” at work?

    2. b.

      How is “zoning out” different from daydreaming?

    3. c.

      How is “zoning out” similar to daydreaming?

  9. 9.

    What is it like to get “lost” in a daydream?

  10. 10.

    What is it like to “find” yourself in a daydream?

  11. 11.

    How often do you “catch” yourself unintentionally daydreaming?

    1. a.

      When do you most often unintentionally daydream?

  12. 12.

    Please describe a situation where you realized you were unintentionally daydreaming.

    1. a.

      What was happening before you daydream?

    2. b.

      What led you to catch yourself?

    3. c.

      Why did this daydream end?

  13. 13.

    Please describe a different situation where you realized you were unintentionally daydreaming.

    1. a.

      What was happening before your daydream?

    2. b.

      What led you to catch yourself daydreaming?

      1. iii.

        If different from the above answer ask: “What is different about this ‘catching’ experience compared to your first example?”

    3. c.

      Why did this daydream end?

  14. 14.

    Can you please describe more fully what it is like to “catch” yourself daydreaming?

    1. a.

      Please describe, using your five senses, what it is like to “catch” yourself daydreaming.

  15. 15.

    What are the different ways you seem to “catch” yourself?

  16. 16.

    We have talked about 3 different daydreaming experiences: simple daydreams, elaborate daydreams, and “zoning out”.

    1. a.

      How are these types of daydreams different?

    2. b.

      What prompts these different types of daydreaming? Are the prompts different? Similar?

    3. c.

      What ends these two different types of daydreaming?

    4. d.

      After the daydream ends, please describe how you feel.

      1. i.

        Do you feel different depending on the experience? Similar?

General end questions

  1. 1.

    What surprises you about your daydreaming experiences?

  2. 2.

    Is there anything else you would like to share?

Additional potential probe questions

  1. 1.

    Would you please tell me more about that?

  2. 2.

    Could you explain that further?

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Merlo, K.L., Wiegand, K.E., Shaughnessy, S.P. et al. A Qualitative Study of Daydreaming Episodes at Work. J Bus Psychol 35, 203–222 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-9611-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-9611-4

Keywords

search

Navigation