ABSTRACT
Character is an increasingly important topic of discourse and analysis, however, much of the research remains problematic and conceptual. Even less evidence exists of the nature of the relationship between character and leadership. This study examined self-reported character and associated demographic correlates among a sample of 238 Australian business leaders. Exploratory factor analysis identified three dimensions of character consistent with theory. These dimensions were examined in relation to demographic variables. After controlling for social desirability bias, few statistically significant demographic differences were found. Further research is recommended to validate the model of character developed in our paper.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Notes
Permission to use the CARS was given by email on 28 July 2003 by W. Herlie Hendrix.
References
Aronson E., (2001). Integrating leadership styles and ethical perspectives Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 18: 244–256
Ashkanasy N. M., Trevor-Roberts E., (2001–2002). Leading in Australia: The egalitarian visionary suits our style Mt Eliza Business Review Summer: 33–39
Bagozzi R. P., Edwards J. R., (1998). A general approach for representing constructs in organizational research Organizational Research Methods 1(1): 45–87
Barker C., Coy R., (2003). The 7 heavenly virtues of leadership. Management Today Series. McGraw-Hill, Sydney
Barlow C. B., Jordan M., Hendrix W. H., (2003). Character assessment: an examination of leadership levels Journal of Business and Psychology 17(4): 563–584
Bass B. M., Avolio B. J., (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Bass B. M., Steidlmeier P., (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior Leadership Quarterly 10(2): 181–217
Bennis W., (1989). On becoming a leader. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA
Bennis W., (1993). An invented life. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA
Calabrese R. L., Roberts B., (2002). Character, school leadership, and the brain: learning how to integrate knowledge with behavioral change International Journal of Educational Management 16(5): 229–238
Ciulla J. B., (1998). Ethics: The heart of leadership. Praegar, Westport, CT
Clarkson M. B. E., (1991). The moral dimension of corporate responsibility In Coughlin R. M., (eds). Morality, rationality, and efficiency: New perspectives on socio-economics M.E. Sharpe Inc., Armonk, N.Y
Crowne D. P., Marlowe D., (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology Journal of Consulting Psychology 24: 349–354
Eden D., (1984). Self-fulfilling prophecy as a management tool: Harnessing Pygmalion Academy of Management Review 9(1): 65–73
Fairholm G. W., (1998). Perspectives on leadership: From the science of management to its spiritual heart Quorum Books, Westport, CT
Fairholm G. W. (1991). Values leadership: Towards a new philosophy of leadership Praeger, New York
Farling M. L., Stone A. G., Winston B. E., (1999). Servant leadership: Setting the stage for empirical research Journal of Leadership Studies 6(1/2): 49–72
Field R. H. G., (1989). The self-fulfilling prophecy leader: Achieving the metharme effect Journal of Management Studies 26: 151–175
Fisher R. J., (1993). Socially desirable responding and the validity of indirect questioning Journal of Consumer Research 20: 303–315
Fisher R. J., Katz J. E., (2000). Social-desirability bias and the validity of self-reported values Psychology and Marketing 17(2):105–120
Ganster D. C., Hennessey H. W., Luthans F., (1983). Social desirability response effects: Three alternative models Academy of Management Journal 26(2): 321–331
Gardner W. L., Avolio B. J., (1998). The charismatic relationship: A dramaturgical perspective Academy of Management Review 23: 32–58
Gavin J. H., Quick J. C., Cooper C. L., Quick J. D., (2003). A spirit of personal integrity: The role of character in executive health Organizational Dynamics 32(2): 165–179
Gergen D., (2001). Character of leadership Executive Excellence 18: 5–7
Goffee R., Jones G., (1998). The character of a corporation. HarperBusiness, New York
Greenleaf R. K., (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness Paulist Press, Mahwah, N.J
Hendrix, W. H. (2001). Behavioral and value-based character assessment system development and validation. Paper presented at the 27th Annual Association for Moral Education Meeting, Vancouver, Canada
Hendrix, W. H. (2003). CARS. Permission to use CARS in study, 28 July, 09:59:45. (William.Hendrix@usafa.af.mil)
Hendrix, W. H., Barlow, C. B., & Luedtke, C. J. (2004). Multimethod approach for measuring changes in character. Journal of Research in Character Education, 2(1), 59--80
Hendrix, W. H., & Hopkins, S. (2003). Beyond macro-ergonomics: Impact of ethical leadership on organizational outcomes. Paper presented at the Human Factors in Organization design and Management Conference, Aachen, Germany, October
Hesselbein, F. (2004). Leading change. Australian Institute of Management International Business Series, Melbourne, 23 April
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. A., Dorfman, P. W., Javidan, M., Dickson, M., Gupta, V., & GLOBE (1999). Cultural influences on leadership and organizations. Advances in Global Leadership, 1, JAI Press, Stamford CN, pp. 171–233
House R., Javidan M., Dorfman P., (2001). Project GLOBE: An introduction Applied Psychology: An International Review 50(4): 489–505
House R., Javidan M., Hanges P., Dorfman P., (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE Journal of World Business 37: 3–10
Jacobs T. O., Jaques E., (1987). Leadership in complex systems In: Zeidner J., (eds). Human productivity enhancement Praeger, New York
Josephson M., Hanson W., (eds.) (1998). The power of character. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA
Kanungo R. N., Mendonca M., (1996). Ethical dimensions of leadership Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Katz D., Kahn R. L., (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2) Wiley, New York
Kirkpatrick S. A., Locke E. A., (1991). Leadership: Do traits matter? Academy of Management Executive 5(2): 48–60
Kotter J., (1998) Cultures and coalitions In Gibson R., (eds) Rethinking the future; rethinking business, principles, competition, control & complexity, leadership, markets and the World Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd., London
Kotter J. P., (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management. Free Press, New York
Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2004). Leadership development is character development. (www.i-lead.com/articles023.html; accessed 23 April 2004)
Likona T., (1991). Educating for character Bantam Books, New York, N.Y
Luthans F., Avolio B. J., (2003). Authentic leadership: a positive development approach In: Camercon K. S., Dutton J. E., Quinn R. E., (eds). Positive organizational scholarship Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA
Marcic D., (1997). Managing with the wisdom of love Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA
May D. R., Chan A. Y. L., Hodges T. D., Avolio B. J., (2003). Developing the moral component of authentic leadership Organizational Dynamics 32(3): 247–260
Moorman R. H., Podsakoff P. M., (1992). A meta-analytic review and empirical test of the potential confounding effects of social desirability response sets in organizational behaviour research Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 65(2): 131–149
Peterson C., Seligman M. E. P., (2003). Character strengths before and after September 11 Psychological Science 14(4): 381–384
Peterson D., (2004). Perceived leader integrity and ethical intentions of subordinates Leadership and Organization Development Journal 25(1): 7–23
Podsakoff P. M., MacKenzie S. B., Lee J.-Y., Podsakoff N. P., (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies Journal of Applied Psychology 88: 879–903
Price T. L., (2002). The ethics of authentic transformational leadership Leadership Quarterly 14(1): 67–81
Rost J. C., (1993). Leadership for the twenty-first century Praeger, Westport, CT
Rousseau D. M., (1990). Assessing organizational culture: The case for multiple methods In: Schneider B., (eds) Organizational climate and culture Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA
Rousseau D. M., Sitkin S. B., Burt R. S., Camerer C., (1998). Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust Academy of Management Review 23(3): 393–404
Rowallen (Lord). (2002). Aim of Sandhurst training. Sandhurst diary. (www.army.mod.uk/sandhurst/training/training.htm#Aim)
Sarros, J. C., & Barker, C. (2003). Virtuous leadership scale©. Australian Management Character Survey. Australian Institute of Management-Monash University study. (www.ai.com.au/research/amcs.html)
Schein E. H., (1985). Organizational culture and leadership Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA
Schwartz S. H., (1992). Universals in the context and structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries In: Zanna M. P., (eds) Advances in experimental social psychology, 25. Academic Press, New York, NY
Sendjaya S., Sarros J. C., (2002). Servant leadership: Its origin, development, and application in organizations Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies 9(2): 57–64
Sherman N., (1989). The fabric of character: Aristotle’s theory of virtue Oxford University Press, London
Simons T., (1999). Behavioral integrity as a critical ingredient for transformational leadershipJournal of Organizational Change Management 12(2): 89–104
Spears L. C. (ed) (1998). Insights on leadership: Service, stewardship, spirit and servant-leadership Wiley New York
Spector P. E. (1987). Method variance as an artifact in self-reported affect and perceptions at work: Myth or significant problem? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3): 438–443
Tabachnick B. G., Fidell L. S., (2001). Using multivariate statistics 4 Allyn and Bacon Sydney
Tait R., (1996). The attributes of leadership Leadership and Organization Development Journal 17(1): 27–31
Trafimow D., Triandis H. C., Goto S. G., (1991). Some tests of the distinction between the private self and the collective self Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60: 649–655
Treviño L. K., Hartman L. P., Brown M., (2000). Moral person and moral manager: How executives develop a reputation for ethical leadership California Management Review 42(4): 128–142
UNL Gallup Leadership Institute (2004). Crossing borders on authentic leadership perspectives. Gallup Leadership Institute Summit, 10–12 June (www. bus.umich.edu/Positive/Learning/LeadershipSymposium2004.pdf; accessed 23 April 2004)
Whitener E. M., Brodt S. E., Korsgaard M. A., Werner J. M., (1998). Managers as initiators of trust: An exchange relationship framework for understanding managerial trustworthy behavior Academy of Management Review 23(3): 513–530
Zaccaro S. J., (2001). The nature of executive leadership American Psychological Association Washington D.C
Zerbe W. J., Paulhus D. L., (1987). Socially desirable responding in organizational behavior: a reconception Journal of Management Review 12: 250–264
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This study was made possible through the generous support of the Australian Institute of Management (Queensland division) June 2004.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sarros, J.C., Cooper, B.K. BUILDING CHARACTER: A LEADERSHIP ESSENTIAL. J Bus Psychol 21, 1–22 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-005-9020-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-005-9020-3
Keywords
- Leadership
- character attributes
- social desirability bias
- character
- self-report implications
- research outcomes