Abstract
Researchers widely assert that requiring eye contact from students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) before instruction is highly important to the outcome of teaching (Greer and Ross in Verbal behavior analysis, Pearson Education, New York, 2008; Lovaas in J Consult Clin Psychol 55(1):3–9, 1977. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.55.1.3). However, to our knowledge, no research to date has evaluated the effects of this component of instruction on skill acquisition. In this current study, we evaluated the effect of requiring student eye contact from participants with ASD prior to giving an instruction on the rate of skill acquisition. Using an adapted alternating treatments design, this study compared the skill acquisition of three participants diagnosed with ASD during discrete-trial instruction (DTI) for expressive identification of novel items. Requiring eye contact was manipulated as a treatment integrity error during DTI in high-integrity, low-integrity, and control conditions. The experimenter established eye contact with the participants prior to giving an instruction during 100% of trials in the high-integrity condition, whereas eye contact was only established prior to the instruction in 67% of trials in the low-integrity condition. Results indicate that all three participants acquired expressive labels for items in fewer sessions in the high-integrity condition as compared to the low-integrity condition. Implications for the impact of eye contact on skill acquisition are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arnold, A., Semple, R. J., Beale, I., & Fletcher-Flinn, C. M. (2000). Eye contact in children’s social interactions: What is normal behaviour? Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 25(3), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/13269780050144271.
Carbone, V. J., O’Brien, L., Sweeney-Kerwin, E. J., & Albert, K. M. (2013). Teaching eye contact to children with autism: A conceptual analysis and single case study. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(2), 139–159. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2013.0013.
Carroll, R. A., Kodak, T., & Adolf, K. J. (2016). Effect of delayed reinforcement on skill acquisition during discrete-trial instruction: Implications for treatment integrity errors in academic settings. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49(1), 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.268.
Carroll, R. A., Kodak, T., & Fisher, W. W. (2013). An evaluation of programmed treatment-integrity errors during discrete-trial instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(2), 379–394. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.49.
DeLeon, I. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Evaluation of a multiple-stimulus presentation format for assessing reinforcer preferences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 519–533. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1996.29-519.
Donnelly, M. G., & Karsten, A. M. (2017). Effects of programmed teaching errors on acquisition and durability of self-care skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50(3), 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.390.
Foxx, R. M. (1977). Attention training: The use of overcorrection avoidance to increase the eye contact of autistic and retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 489–499. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1977.10-489.
Greer, R. D., & Ross, D. E. (2008). Verbal behavior analysis. New York, NY: Pearson Education.
Groskreutz, N. C., Groskreutz, M. P., & Higbee, T. S. (2011). Effects of varied levels of treatment integrity on appropriate toy manipulation in children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 1358–1369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.01.018.
Holcombe, A., Wolery, M., & Snyder, E. (1994). Effects of two levels of procedural fidelity with constant time delay on children’s learning. Journal of Behavioral Education, 4, 49–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01560509.
Kozloff, M. A. (1974). Educating children with learning and behavior problems. New York, NY: Wiley.
Leaf, R., & McEachin, J. (1999). A work in progress. New York, NY: DRL Books LLC.
Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Taubman, M. (2012). Work in progress companion series: Learning how to learn. New York, NY: DRL Books LLC.
Lovaas, O. I. (1977). The autistic child: Language development through behavior modification. New York, NY: Irvington.
Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.55.1.3.
Mundy, P., Sigman, M., & Kasari, C. (1990). A longitudinal study of joint attention and language development in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20(1), 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02206861.
Noell, G. H., Gresham, F. M., & Gansle, K. A. (2002). Does treatment integrity matter? A preliminary investigation of instructional implementation and mathematics performance. Journal of Behavioral Education, 11, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014385321849.
Paone, D. (2015). Wait For It. In L. Delmolino (Ed.), Solve common teaching challenges in children with autism: 8 Essential strategies for professionals & parents (pp. 31–41). Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.
Pence, T. S., & St. Peter, C. C. (2015). Evaluation of treatment integrity errors on mand acquisition. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48, 575–589. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.238.
Roid, G. H. (2003). Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, technical manual (5th ed.). Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
Saunders, K. J., & Williams, D. C. (1998). Stimulus-control procedures. In K. A. Lattal & M. Perone (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in human operant behavior. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Sindelar, P. T., Rosenberg, M. S., & Wilson, R. J. (1985). An adapted alternating treatments design for instructional research. Education and Treatment of Children, 8, 67–76.
Smith, T. (2001). Discrete trial training in the treatment of autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(2), 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/108835760101600204.
Vollmer, T. R., Roane, H. S., Ringdahl, J. E., & Marcus, B. A. (1999). Evaluating treatment challenges with differential reinforcement of alternative behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 9–23. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1999.32-9.
Yeaton, W. H., & Sechrest, L. (1981). Critical dimensions in the choice and maintenance of successful treatments: Strength, integrity, and effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49(2), 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.49.2.156.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
This study includes research with human participants. Informed consent materials and processes were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Rutgers University-New Brunswick. Consent for participation was obtained from the students’ parents prior to the start of the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Silva, D.P., Fiske, K.E. Evaluating the Effects of Establishing Eye Contact on the Skill Acquisition of Individuals with Autism. J Behav Educ 30, 708–723 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-020-09391-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-020-09391-5