Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

The Expanded Version of the Inferential Confusion Questionnaire: Further Development and Validation in Clinical and Non-Clinical Samples

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The current study represents the further development and validation of an expanded version of the Inferential Confusion Questionnaire (ICQ-EV) in non-clinical and clinical samples. Inferential confusion seems to be particularly relevant to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and is defined as a failure to recognize the unrealistic nature of obsessions due to a subjective form of reasoning. Factor analysis of the item-set of the ICQ-EV indicated a one-dimensional solution in non-clinical and clinical samples. It was hypothesized that inferential confusion as measured by the ICQ-EV would be particularly relevant to participants with OCD. Results confirmed convergent validity with strong relationships between the ICQ-EV and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in all samples independent of other cognitive domains and general distress. In addition, those with OCD scored higher on the ICQ-EV than non-clinical controls and a mixed anxiety disorder group so confirming group-criterion validity. Finally, the ICQ-EV also showed clinical validity with change in ICQ-EV scores during treatment significantly related to successful treatment outcome.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aardema, F., & O’Connor, K. (2003). Seeing white bears that are not there: inference processes in obsessions. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 17, 23–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aardema, F., & O’Connor, K. (2007). The menace within: obsessions and the self. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 21, 182–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aardema, F., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & O’Connor, K. (2005a). Inferential confusion, cognitive change and treatment outcome in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 12, 337–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aardema, F., O’Connor, K., Emmelkamp, P., Marchand, A., & Todorov, C. (2005b). Inferential confusion and obsessive-compulsive disorder: the Inferential Confusion Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 293–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aardema, F., Kleijer, T. M. R., Trihey, M., O’Connor, K., & Emmelkamp, P. (2006a). Inference processes, schizotypal thinking and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychological Reports, 99, 213–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aardema, F., O’Connor, K. P., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2006b). Inferential confusion and obsessive beliefs in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 35, 138–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aardema, F., Radomsky, A. S., O’Connor, K. P., & Julien, D. (2008). Inferential confusion, obsessive beliefs and obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a multidimensional investigation of cognitive domains. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 15, 227–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aardema, F., Pélissier, M. C., O’Connor, K. P., & Lavoie, M. (2009). The quantification of doubt in obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 2, 188–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (text rev.) (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory (2nd ed.). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brislin, R. (1986). The wording and translation of research instruments. In W. J. Lonner & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Field methods in cross-cultural psychology (pp. 137–164). Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A., DiNardo, P. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1994a). Anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV. Boulder: Graywind Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, H. D., Kosslyn, S. M., Breiter, H. C., Baer, L., & Jenike, M. A. (1994b). Can patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder discriminate between percepts and mental images? A signal detection analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 445–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, G. L., Keortge, S. G., Formea, G. M., & Sternberger, L. G. (1996). Revision of the Padua Inventory of obsessive compulsive disorder symptoms: distinctions between worry, obsessions, and compulsions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 163–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment Research & Evaluation, 10, Retrieved March 18, 2009 from http://pareonline.net/pdf/v10n7a.pdf.

  • Cota, A. A., Longman, R. S., Holden, R. R., Fekken, G. C., & Xinaris, S. (1993). Interpolating 95th percentile eigenvalues from random data: an empirical example. Educational & Psychological Measurement, 53, 585–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Éditions du Centre de Psychologie Appliquée. (1998). Inventaire de dépression de Beck, BDI-II [Beck Depression Inventory]. Paris: Éditions du Centre de Psychologie Appliquée.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & Aardema, F. (1999). Metacognition, specific obsessive-compulsive beliefs and obsessive-compulsive behavior. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6, 139–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Van Oppen, P., & Van Balkom, A. J. L. M. (2002). Cognitive changes in patients with obsessive-compulsive rituals treated with exposure in vivo and response prevention. In R. O. Frost & G. Steketee (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions: Theory, assessment, and treatment. Oxford: Elsevier Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeston, M. H., Ladouceur, R., Thibodeau, N., Gagnon, F., & Rhéaume, J. (1994). L’inventaire d’anxiété de Beck: propriétés psychométriques d’une traduction française. L’encéphale, 20, 47–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardiner, W. P., & Gettinby, G. (1998). Experimental design techniques in statistical practice: A practical software-based approach. Chichester: Horwood Publishing Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., Mazure, C., Delgado, P., Heninger, G. R., et al. (1989a). The yale-brown obsessive compulsive scale. II Validity. Validity Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1012–1016.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., Mazure, C., Fleischman, R. L., Hill, C. L., et al. (1989b). The yale-brown obsessive compulsive scale. I. Development, use and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1006–1011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Julien, D., O’Connor, K. P., & Aardema, F. (2007). Intrusive thoughts, obsessions and appraisals in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 366–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Julien, D., O’Connor, K., & Aardema, F. (2008). Intrusions related to obsessive-compulsive disorder: a question of content or context? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 709–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kawamura, K. Y., Hunt, S. L., Frost, R. O., & DiBartolo, P. (2001). Perfectionism, anxiety and depression: are the relationships independent? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 291–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4, 84–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mineka, S., Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 377–412.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, K. P., & Robillard, S. (1995). Inference processes in obsessive-compulsive disorder: some clinical observations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 887–896.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, K. P., & Robillard, S. (1999). A cognitive approach to modifying primary inferences in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 13, 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, K., Aardema, F., Bouthillier, D., Fournier, S., Guay, S., Robillard, S., et al. (2005a). Evaluation of an inference based approach to treating obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 43, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, K., Aardema, F., & Pélissier, M. C. (2005b). Beyond reasonable doubt: Reasoning processes in obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2005). Psychometric validation of the obsessive belief questionnaire and interpretation of intrusions inventory—Part 2: factor analyses and testing of a brief version. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1527–1542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & MacCallum, R. C. (2002). Exploratory factor analysis in behavior genetics research: factor recovery with small sample sizes. Behavior Genetics, 32, 153–161.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S., & Shafran, R. (1999). Cognitive distortions: Thought-action fusion. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6, 80–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radomsky, A. S., Ouimet, A. J., Ashbaugh, A. R., Lavoie, S. L., Parrish, C. L., & O’Connor, K. P. (2006). Psychometric properties of the French and English versions of the Vancouver obsessive-compulsive inventory and the symmetry ordering and arranging questionnaire. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 35, 164–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanavio, E. (1988). Obsessions and compulsions: the Padua inventory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 169–177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., Hippler, H. J., Deutsch, B., & Strack, F. (1985). Response scales: effects of category range on reported behavior and comparative judgments. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 49, 388–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taillon, A., O’Connor, K. P, Aardema, F., & Laverdure, A. (2007). The impact of overvalued ideation on obsessive-compulsive disorder symptomatology and treatment outcome. Poster Session presented at the 41st Annual Meeting of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy, Philadelphia, November.

  • Taylor, S., Thordarson, D. S., & Söchting, I. (2002). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. In M. M. Antony & D. H. Barlow (Eds.), Handbook of assessment and treatment planning for psychological disorders (pp. 182–214). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1991). The mood and anxiety symptom questionnaire. Iowa City: University of Iowa. Unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Wu, K. D. (2005). Development and validation of the schedule of compulsions, obsessions and pathological impulses (SCOPI). Assessment, 12, 50–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Weber, K., Assenheimer, J. S., Strauss, M. A., & McCormick, R. A. (1995a). Testing a tripartite model: II. Evaluating the symptom structure of anxiety and depression in student, adult and patient samples. Journal of Abnormal Pyschology, 104, 15–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Weber, K., Assenheimer, J. S., Clark, L. A., Strauss, M. A., & McCormick, R. A. (1995b). Testing a tripartite model: I. Evaluating the convergent and discriminant validity of anxiety and depression symptom scales. Journal of Abnormal Pyschology, 104, 3–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. M., Tataryn, D. J., & Gorsuch, R. L. (1996). Effects of under- and overextraction on principal axis factor analysis with varimax rotation. Psychological Methods, 1, 354–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, K. D., & Carter, S. A. (2008). Further investigation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire: factor structure and specificity of relations with OCD symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 824–836.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, K. D., Aardema, F., & O’Connor, K. P. (2009). Inferential confusion, obsessive beliefs and obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a replication and extension. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 746–752.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The study was supported with a Fellowship Award from the Fond the la Recherche en Santé Quebec (FRSQ) and Grant No. MOP67059 from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Frederick Aardema.

Appendix

Appendix

Inferential Confusion Questionnaire—Expanded Version

figure afigure a

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Aardema, F., Wu, K.D., Careau, Y. et al. The Expanded Version of the Inferential Confusion Questionnaire: Further Development and Validation in Clinical and Non-Clinical Samples. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 32, 448–462 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-009-9157-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-009-9157-x

Keywords

Navigation