Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Fabrication of highly interconnected porous poly(ɛ-caprolactone) scaffolds with supercritical CO2 foaming and polymer leaching

  • Polymers
  • Published:
Journal of Materials Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Highly interconnected porous poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffolds combined with supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) foaming and a polymer leaching process were fabricated by blending PCL with water-soluble poly(ethyleneoxide) (PEO) as a sacrificial material. The effects of foaming conditions and the phase morphology of blend on foaming behavior and pore morphology were investigated. Rheological results and phase morphology indicated that the PCL and PEO were immiscible. For both spherical droplets and co-continuous phase morphologies of PCL/PEO blend, batch foaming experimental results indicated that increasing CO2 saturation time and foaming pressure led to significant decreases in pore size, but increasing temperature led to opposite results. The incorporation of PEO not only facilitated the foaming of PCL by increasing its viscosity, but it also improved the porosity and interconnectivity of the post-leached PCL scaffolds. The porosity improved by up to 93.5%, and the open pore content increased by up to 90.9% for the PCL50 blend (50% PCL by weight). The leaching process had more contribution on the open pore content for PCL/PEO porous scaffolds with co-continuous phase morphologies than for the spherical droplet structures due to different cell-opening mechanisms. The results gathered in this study may provide a theoretical basis and data to support research into porous scaffolds for tissue engineering.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

References

  1. Griffith LG, Naughton G (2002) Tissue engineering: current challenges and expanding opportunities. Science 295(5557):1009–1014

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Jiang YC, Lin J, An H, Wang XF, Qian L, Turng LS (2017) Electrospun polycaprolactone/gelatin composites with enhanced cell–matrix interactions as blood vessel endothelial layer scaffolds. Mater Sci Eng C 71:901–908

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Hutmacher DW (2000) Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage. Biomaterials 21(24):2529–2543

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Zhang C, Wang L, Zhai T, Wang X, Dan Y, Turng LS (2016) The surface grafting of graphene oxide with poly(ethylene glycol) as a reinforcement for poly(lactic acid) nanocomposite scaffolds for potential tissue engineering applications. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 53:403–413

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Bonfield W (2006) Designing porous scaffolds for tissue engineering. Philos Trans 364(1838):227–232

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Mi HY, Jing X, Salick MR, Cordie TM, Peng XF, Turng LS (2014) Morphology, mechanical properties, and mineralization of rigid thermoplastic polyurethane/hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue applications: effects of fabrication approaches and hydroxyapatite size. J Mater Sci 49(5):2324–2337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-013-7931-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Huang A, Jiang Y, Napiwocki B, Mi H, Peng X, Turng LS (2017) Fabrication of poly(ε-caprolactone) tissue engineering scaffolds with fibrillated and interconnected pores utilizing microcellular injection molding and polymer leaching. RSC Adv 7(69):43432–43444

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Gao Q, Gu H, Zhao P, Zhang C, Cao M, Fu J, He Y (2018) Fabrication of electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds with 3D controllable geometric shapes. Mater Des 157:159–169

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Zhao P, Cao M, Gu H, Gao Q, Xia N, He Y, Fu J (2018) Research on the electrospun foaming process to fabricate three-dimensional tissue engineering scaffolds. J Appl Polym Sci 135(46):46898

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Jiang L, Wang L, Wang N, Gong S, Wang L, Li Q, Shen C, Turng LS (2017) Fabrication of polycaprolactone electrospun fibers with different hierarchical structures mimicking collagen fibrils for tissue engineering scaffolds. Appl Surf Sci 427:311–325

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Sun S, Li Q, Zhao N, Jiang J, Zhang K, Hou J, Wang X, Liu G (2018) Preparation of highly interconnected porous poly(ε-caprolactone)/poly(lactic acid) scaffolds via supercritical foaming. Polym Adv Technol 29(12):3065–3074

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Rouholamin D, Smith PJ, Ghassemieh E (2013) Control of morphological properties of porous biodegradable scaffolds processed by supercritical CO2 foaming. J Mater Sci 48(8):3254–3263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-012-7109-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Nie J, Gao Q, Qiu JJ, Sun M, Liu A, Shao L, Fu JZ, Zhao P, He Y (2018) 3D printed Lego®-like modular microfluidic devices based on capillary driving. Biofabrication 10(3):035001

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Zhao H, Chen Y, Shao L, Xie M, Nie J, Qiu J, Zhao P, Ramezani H, Fu J, Ouyang H, He Y (2018) Airflow-assisted 3D bioprinting of human heterogeneous microspheroidal organoids with microfluidic nozzle. Small 14(39):1802630

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Yan S, Zhang X, Zhang L, Liu H, Wang X, Li Q (2017) Polymer scaffolds for vascular tissue engineering fabricated by combined electrospinning and hot embossing. Biomed Mater 13(1):015003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Huaguo L, Yingjun W, Chengyun N, Huade Z (2007) Preparation of poly(ε-caprolactone) tissue engineering scaffold by freeze-drying/particle-leaching method. Mater Rev 2:032

    Google Scholar 

  17. Kuang T, Chen F, Chang L, Zhao Y, Fu D, Gong X, Peng X (2017) Facile preparation of open-cellular porous poly (l-lactic acid) scaffold by supercritical carbon dioxide foaming for potential tissue engineering applications. Chem Eng J 307:1017–1025

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Reignier J, Huneault MA (2006) Preparation of interconnected poly(ε-caprolactone) porous scaffolds by a combination of polymer and salt particulate leaching. Polymer 47(13):4703–4717

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Jing X, Mi HY, Cordie T, Salick M, Peng XF, Turng LS (2014) Fabrication of porous poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffolds containing chitosan nanofibers by combining extrusion foaming, leaching, and freeze-drying methods. Ind Eng Chem Res 53(46):17909–17918

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Zhao N, Zhu C, Howe Mark L, Park CB, Li Q (2015) Batch foaming poly(vinyl alcohol)/microfibrillated cellulose composites with CO2 and water as co-blowing agents. J Appl Polym Sci 132(48):42551

    Google Scholar 

  21. Goel SK, Beckman EJ (1994) Generation of microcellular polymeric foams using supercritical carbon dioxide 1-effect of pressure and temperature on nucleation. Polym Eng Sci 34:1137–1146

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Goel SK, Beckman EJ (1994) Generation of microcellular polymeric foams usingsupercritical carbon dioxide 2-cell growth and skin formation. Polym Eng Sci 34:1148–1156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. White LJ, Hutter V, Tai H, Howdle SM, Shakesheff KM (2012) The effect of processing variables on morphological and mechanical properties of supercritical CO2 foamed scaffolds for tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 8(1):61–71

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Gualandi C, White LJ, Chen L, Gross RA, Shakesheff KM, Howdle SM, Scandola M (2010) Scaffold for tissue engineering fabricated by non-isothermal supercritical carbon dioxide foaming of a highly crystalline polyester. Acta Biomater 6(1):130–136

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Chen CX, Liu QQ, Xin X, Guan YX, Yao SJ (2016) Pore formation of poly(ε-caprolactone) scaffolds with melting point reduction in supercritical CO2 foaming. J Supercrit Fluids 117:279–288

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Nemiroski A, Soh S, Kwok SW, Yu HD, Whitesides GM (2016) Tilted magnetic levitation enables measurement of the complete range of densities of materials with low magnetic permeability. J Am Chem Soc 138(4):1252–1257

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Zhang C, Zhao P, Gu F, Xie J, Xia N, He Y, Fu J (2018) A single ring magnetic levitation configuration for object manipulation and density-based measurement. Anal Chem 90(15):9226–9233

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Zhang C, Zhao PW, Xie J, Xia N, Fu J (2018) Density measurement via magnetic levitation: linear relationship investigation. Polym Test 70:520–525

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Rizvi A, Chu RK, Lee JH, Park CB (2014) Superhydrophobic and oleophilic open-cell foams from fibrillar blends of polypropylene and polytetrafluoroethylene. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6(23):21131–21140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Wang X, Li H (2001) Compatibilizing effect of ethylene-vinyl acetate-acrylic acid copolymer on nylon 6/ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer blended system: mechanical properties, morphology and rheology. J Mater Sci 36(22):5465–5473. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012437832479

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. González J, Rosales C, González M, León N, Escalona R, Rojas H (2017) Rheological and mechanical properties of blends of LDPE with high contents of UHMWPE wastes. J Appl Polym Sci 134(26):44996

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Friedrich C, Braun H (1992) Generalized Cole–Cole behavior and its rheological relevance. Rheol Acta 31(4):309–322

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Liao R, Yu W, Zhou C (2010) Rheological control in foaming polymeric materials: I. Amorphous polymers. Polymer 51(2):568–580

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Liao R, Yu W, Zhou C (2010) Rheological control in foaming polymeric materials: II. Semi-crystalline polymers. Polymer 51(26):6334–6345

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Emami M, Thompson MR, Vlachopoulos J (2014) Experimental and numerical studies on bubble dynamics in nonpressurized foaming systems. Polym Eng Sci 54(8):1947–1959

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Zeltinger J, Sherwood J, Graham D, Mueller R, Griffith L (2001) Effect of pore size and void fraction on cellular adhesion, proliferation, and matrix deposition. Tissue Eng Part A 7(5):557–572

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Chen S, Zhang Q, Nakamoto T, Kawazoe N, Chen G (2016) Gelatin scaffolds with controlled pore structure and mechanical property for cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 22(3):189–198

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Markočič E, Škerget M, Knez Ž (2013) Effect of temperature and pressure on the behavior of poly(ε-caprolactone) in the presence of supercritical carbon dioxide. Ind Eng Chem Res 52(44):15594–15601

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Ivanovic J, Knauer S, Fanovich A, Milovanovic S, Stamenic M, Jaeger P, Zizovic I, Eggers R (2016) Supercritical CO2 sorption kinetics and thymol impregnation of PCL and PCL-HA. J Supercrit Fluids 107(93):486–498

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Yang C, Kang YQ, Liao XM, Yao YD, Huang ZB, Yin GF (2010) Preparation of PLGA/β-TCP composite scaffolds with supercritical CO2 foaming technique. Front Mater Sci Chin 4(3):314–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Yu J, Xia H, Ni QQ (2018) A three-dimensional porous hydroxyapatite nanocomposite scaffold with shape memory effect for bone tissue engineering. J Mater Sci 53(7):4734–4744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1807-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Leung SN, Wong A, Wang LC, Park CB (2012) Mechanism of extensional stress-induced cell formation in polymeric foaming processes with the presence of nucleating agents. J Supercrit Fluids 63:187–198

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (contract Grant Number 2017M612415), the International Technological Cooperation Project (contract Grant Number 2015DFA30550) and Key scientific research project plan of Henan high education institutions (contract Grant Number 18A430030) for their financial support of this project. The project was also sponsored by Scientific and technological research project of Henan Province (contract Grant Nos. 182102210188, 172102210489).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China

    Kangkang Zhang, Yuqi Wang, Xiaofeng Wang, Jianhua Hou, Shuhao Sun & Qian Li

  2. School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China

    Jing Jiang

  3. National Center For International Joint Research of Micro-Nano Molding Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, Henan, China

    Kangkang Zhang, Yuqi Wang, Jing Jiang, Xiaofeng Wang, Jianhua Hou, Shuhao Sun & Qian Li

Authors
  1. Kangkang Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yuqi Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jing Jiang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Xiaofeng Wang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jianhua Hou
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Shuhao Sun
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Qian Li
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Jing Jiang or Qian Li.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 1754 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhang, K., Wang, Y., Jiang, J. et al. Fabrication of highly interconnected porous poly(ɛ-caprolactone) scaffolds with supercritical CO2 foaming and polymer leaching. J Mater Sci 54, 5112–5126 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-3166-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-3166-7

Keywords