Skip to main content

Gender factors and female entrepreneurship: International evidence and policy implications

Journal of International Entrepreneurship volume 8, pages 1–35 (2010)Cite this article

Abstract

Nowadays, the transformations taking place in female entrepreneurship at the national and international levels and the importance of such entrepreneurship for economic growth and poverty alleviation underscore the need for more global and diversified analysis of female entrepreneurial activities. The literature however regarding international comparisons of female entrepreneurship practices remains limited and becomes even more limited when exploring such practices beyond the developed countries context. To this end, this paper examined the impact of five gender-related variables on the extent of female entrepreneurial activities in 44 developed and developing countries. Among its five focused variables, the paper found female education, extent of female economic activities, female earnings ratio, and fertility rate to be significant in all estimations with two different dependent variables representing female entrepreneurial activities. The remaining focus variable related to gender empowerment was found to be significant with one of the two dependent variables. Among its contributions, the paper explored gender entrepreneurship from an international perspective and extended the analysis of the topic beyond the main stream Anglo-Saxon context. It also highlighted the variations in results with regards to developed and developing countries environment. Understanding factors that could influence the development of female entrepreneurial activities and exploring their potential variability across stages of economic development could also be useful for policy makers exploring effective incentive structure to promote gender entrepreneurship in their respective countries.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

Notes

  1. Million Dollar Firms By the Numbers. 2008. Report Underwritten by OPEN from American Express and the Jana Matthews Group. Available from the Center for Women’s Business Research

  2. www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/zgrq/t36655.htm

  3. Lessons from the Trenches: Learning from $1 Million Plus Women Entrepreneurs. Report Underwritten by OPEN from American Express and The Jana Matthews Group. Available from the Center for Women’s Business Research

  4. It should be noted here that one might point out that this hypothesis is a little obvious since the relationship between educational attainment and entrepreneurial activities is likely to be positive irrespective of the gender status. This hypothesis, however, brings another added value which is to see whether the spillover effect of female education in a given society improves the involvement of women in the work force including entrepreneurs.

  5. Source, Institute For Women’s Policy Research: http://www.iwpr.org/pdf/C350.pdf

  6. Data on the status of women worldwide. Gender equality and sustainable development. Women’s Environment and Development Organization. Available online: http://www.wedo.org/wp-content/uploads/data-on-the-status-of-women-worldwide-_2_.pdf

  7. Note that the PRIGHT variable reported in the “Index of Economic Freedom” gives a highest score of 1 for countries with high property rights and a lowest score of 4 for countries with low property rights, e.g., Australia and Croatia, respectively. In order to simplify the analysis, we reverse the ranking by making the lowest score = 1 and the highest score = 4. It should be emphasized however that the overall results remain the same regardless of the ordering of the scores.

  8. Given that the additional estimations performed as robustness checks did not change the reported results in the text in any significant way, we did not report all these results for the sake of brevity. The results however are available from the author upon request.

References

  • Acs Z, Arenius P, Hay M, Minniti M (2004) Global entrepreneurship monitor. Babson College, London Business School, and the Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahl H (2006) Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrep Theory Pract 30(5):595–621

    Google Scholar 

  • Almus M, Nerlinger EA (1999) Growth of new technology based firms: which factors matter? Small Bus Econ 13(2):141–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleton S, Hoddinott J, Krishnan P (1999) The gender wage gap in three African countries. Econ Dev Cult Change 47(2):289–313

    Google Scholar 

  • Arenius P, DeClercq D (2005) A network-based approach on opportunity recognition. Small Bus Econ 24(3):249–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Arenius P, Minniti M (2005) Perceptual variables and nascent entrepreneurship. Small Bus Econ 24(3):233–247

    Google Scholar 

  • Audretsch DB, Fritsch M (1994) The geography of firm births in Germany. Reg Stud 28(4):359–365

    Google Scholar 

  • Bardasi E, Blackden M, Guzman C (2007) Gender, entrepreneurship, and competitiveness in Africa—the Africa competitiveness report. World Bank, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartik TJ (1989) Small business start-ups in the United States: estimates of the effects of characteristics of states. South Econ J 55:1004–1018

    Google Scholar 

  • Basu A, Goswami A (1999) South Asian entrepreneurship in Great Britain: factors influencing growth. Int J Entrep Behav Res 5(5):251

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates T (1990) Entrepreneur human capital inputs and small business longevity. Rev Econ Stat 72(4):551–559

    Google Scholar 

  • Baughn CC, Chua B-L, Neupert KE (2006) The normative context for women’s participation in entrepreneurship: a multicountry study. Entrep Theory Pract 30(5):687–708

    Google Scholar 

  • Beneria L (2001) Changing employment patterns and the informalization of jobs: general trends and gender dimensions. International Labour Office, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg N (1997) Gender, place and entrepreneurship. Entrep Reg Dev 9(4):259–268

    Google Scholar 

  • Bird B, Brush C (2002) A gendered perspective on organizational creation. Entrep Theory Pract 26(3):41–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Birley S (1989) Female entrepreneurs: are they really different? J Small Bus Manage 27(1):7–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumenberg E (1998) Gender equity planning: inserting women into local economic development. J Plan Lit 13(2):131–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Boden RJ (1999) Flexible working hours, family responsibilities, and female self-employment. Am J Econ Sociol 58(1):71–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Borjas G, Bronars S (1989) Consumer discrimination and self-employment. J Polit Econ 97(3):581–605

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockhaus RH, Nord WR (1979) An exploration of factors affecting the entrepreneurial decision: personal characteristics vs. environmental conditions. IN: Proceedings of the Thirty Ninth Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, pp 364–368

  • Browne K (2001) Female entrepreneurship in the Caribbean: a multisite, pilot investigation of gender and work. Human Organ 60(4):326–342

    Google Scholar 

  • Brush CG (1990) Women and enterprise creation: barriers and opportunities. Enterprising women: local initiatives for job creation. OECD, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Brush CG (1992) Research on women business owners: past trends, a new perspective and future directions. Entrepren Theor Pract 16(Summer):5–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Brush CG, VanderWerf P (1992) A comparison of methods and sources for obtaining estimates of new venture performance. J Bus Venturing 7(2):157–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Busenitz LW, Lau CM (1996) A cross-cultural cognitive model of new venture creation. Entrep Theory Pract 20(4):25–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Buttner HE, Moore DP (1997) Women's organizational exodus to entrepreneurship: self reported motivations and correlates with success. J Small Bus Manage 35(1):34–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Caputo RK, Dolinsky A (1998) Women’s choice to pursue self-employment: the role of financial and human capital of household members. J Small Bus Manage 36:8–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr D (1996) Two paths to self-employment? women's and men's self-employment in the United States, 1980. Work Occup 23:26–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Carree MA, Van Stel AJ, Thurik AR, Wennekers ARM (2002) Economic development and business ownership: an analysis using data of 23 OECD countries in the period 1976–1996. Small Bus Econ 19(3):271–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter N (1997) Entrepreneurial processes and outcomes: the influence of gender. In: Reynolds PD, White SB (eds) The entrepreneurial process: economic growth, men, women, and minorities. Quorum, Westport, pp 163–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter S, Marlow S (2003) Accounting for change: professionalism as a challenge to gender disadvantage in entrepreneurship. In: Butler J (ed) New perspectives on women entrepreneurs. Information Age, Greenwich, pp 181–202

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter S, Weeks J (2002) Special issue: gender and business ownership—international perspectives on theory and practice. Int J Entrep Innov 3(2):81–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Casson MC (1991) The entrepreneur: an economic theory. Gregg Revivals, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Casson MC (2005) Entrepreneurship and the theory of the firm. J Econ Behav Organ 58:327–348

    Google Scholar 

  • Cetindamar D (2005) Policy issues for Turkish entrepreneurs. Int J Entrepren Innovat Manag 5(3, 4):187–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark K, Drinkwater S (2000) Pushed out or pulled in? Self-employment among ethnic minorities in England and Wales. Labour Econ 7(5):603–628

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman S (2002) Constraints faced by women small business owners: evidence from the data. J Dev Entrep 7(2):151–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Connely R (1992) Self-employment and providing child care. Demography 29(1):17–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper AC, Gascon EJ (1992) Entrepreneurs, process of founding, and new-firm performance. In: Sexton DL, Kassadra JD (eds) The state of art of entrepreneurship. PWS Kent, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowling M, Taylor M (2001) Entrepreneurial women and men: two different species? Small Bus Econ 16(3):167–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Daily CM, Trevis CS, Dalton DR (1999) Entrepreneurial ventures as an avenue to the top? Assessing the advancement of female CEOs and directors in the Inc. 100. J Dev Entrep 4(1):19–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Dana LY (1987) Entrepreneurship and venture creation: an international comparison of five commonwealth nations. In: Churchill NC, Hornaday JA, Kirchhoff BA, Krasner OJ, Vesper KH (eds) Frontiers of entrepreneurship research. Babson College, Wellesley, pp 573–583

    Google Scholar 

  • Dana LY (1990) Saint Martin/Sint Maarten: a case study of the effects of culture on economic development. J Small Bus Manage 28(4):91–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Dasgupta T, Roy A, Chattopadhyay RN (2006) Gender entrepreneurship in a rural scenario: a case study of South West Midnapore, West Bengal. J Soc Sci 12(2):151–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidsson P, Henrekson M (2002) Determinants of the prevalence of start-ups and high-growth firms. Small Bus Econ 19(2):81–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidsson P, Honig B (2003) The role of social and human capital among nascent Entrepreneurs. J Bus Venturing 18(3):301–331

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidsson P, Lindmark L, Olofsson C (1994) New firm formation and regional development in Sweden. Reg Stud 38(4):395–410

    Google Scholar 

  • DeCarlo JF, Lyons PR (1979) A comparison of selected personal characteristics of minority and non-minority female entrepreneurs. In: Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, pp 369–373

  • Desai S (2009) Measuring entrepreneurship in developing countries. United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research. Research Paper No. 2009/10

  • Devine TJ (1994) Characteristics of self employed women in the United States. Mon Labor Rev 117:20–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolinski A, Caputo R, Pasumarty K, Quazi H (1993) The effect of education on business ownership: a longitudinal study of women. Entrep Theory Pract 18(1):43–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Droucopoulos V, Thomadakis S (1993) The share of small and medium-sized enterprise in Greek manufacturing. Small Bus Econ 5(3):187–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Ducheneaut B (1997) Entrepreneurship and higher education. From real-life context to pedagogical challenge. Paper presented at the Internationalizing Entrepreneurship Education and Training Conference. Monterey Bay (California, USA)

  • Dunn T, Holtz-Eakin D (1995) Capital market constraints, parental wealth and the transition to self-employment among men and woman. NLS Discussion Paper, Report: NLS 96-29. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Economic Research, Washington, DC

  • Eddleston K, Powell G (2008) The role of identity in explaining sex differences in business owners’ career satisfier preferences. J Bus Venturing 23:244–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards LN, Field-Hendrey E (1996) Home-based workers: data from the 1990 census of population. Mon Labor Rev 119(11):3–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Egeln J, Licht G, Steil F (1997) Firm foundations and the role of financial constraints. Small Bus Econ 9(2):137–150

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans DS, Jovanovic B (1989) An estimated model of entrepreneurial choice under liquidity constraints. J Polit Econ 97:808–827

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans DS, Leighton LS (1989) Some empirical aspects of entrepreneurship. Am Econ Rev 79(3):519–535

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagenson E, Marcus E (1991) Perceptions of the sex-role stereotypic characteristics of entrepreneurs: women’s evaluations. Entrep Theory Pract 15(4):33–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Fogel G (2001) An analysis of entrepreneurial environment and enterprise development in Hungary. J Small Bus Manage 39(1):103–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Grilo I, Irigoyen JM (2006) Entrepreneurship in the EU: to wish and not to be. Small Bus Econ 26(4):305–318

    Google Scholar 

  • Guesnier B (1994) Regional variations in new firm formation in France. Reg Stud 28:347–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison B, Bluestone B (1988) The great U-turn: corporate restructuring and the polarizing of America. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes G, Rowe B, Walker R, Hong G (2000) The differences in financial structure between women and men owned family businesses. J Fam Econ Iss 21(3):209–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Hisrich RD, Brush CG (1984) The woman entrepreneur: Management skills and business problems. J Small Bus Manage 22:31–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Hisrich RD, Brush CG (1985) Women and minority entrepreneurs: a comparative analysis. Frontiers of entrepreneurship research. Babson College, Wellesley, pp 566–586

    Google Scholar 

  • Hisrich RD, Brush CG, Good D, De Souza G (1996) Some preliminary findings on performance in entrepreneurial ventures: does gender matter? Frontiers of entrepreneurship research. Babson College, Wellesley

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede G (1998) Masculinity and femininity: the taboo dimension of national cultures. Sage, Thousand Oaks

    Google Scholar 

  • Holtz-Eakin D, Joulfaian D, Rosen HS (1994) Sticking it out: entrepreneurial survival and liquidity constraints. J Polit Econ 102(1):53–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Hosken F (1994) WIN News 20(4):12

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes KD (1999) Gender and self-employment in Canada: assessing trends and policy issues. Canadian Policy Research Networks, Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  • Hundley G (2001) Why women earn less than men in self-employment. J Labor Res 22(4):817–829

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurley AE (1999) Incorporating feminist theories into sociological theories of entrepreneurship. Women Manage Rev 14(2):54–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Illeris S (1986) New firm creation in Denmark: the importance of the cultural background. In: Keeble B, Wever E (eds) New firms and regional development in Europe. Croom Helm, Beckerham

    Google Scholar 

  • ILO (2008) Global employment trends for women. International Labour Office, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson M (1998) Women start own firms in frustration. Denver Post, Feb 25, C.03, Denver, CO

  • Keeble D, Walker S (1994) New firms, small firms and dead firms: spatial patterns and determinants in the United Kingdom. Reg Stud 28(4):411–4427

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreide R (2003) Self employment of women and welfare-state policies. Rev Int Sociol 13(1):205–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn PJ, Schuetze HJ (2001) Self-employment dynamics and self-employment trends: a study of Canadian men and women, 1982–1998. Can J Econ 34(3):760–784

    Google Scholar 

  • Langowitz NS, Minniti M (2007) The entrepreneurial propensity of women. Entrep Theory Pract 31(3):341–364

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee SS, Osteryoung JS (2001) A comparison of determinants for business start-up in the U.S. and Korea. J Small Bus Manage 39(2):193–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerner M, Brush CG, Hisrich R (1997) Israeli women entrepreneurs: an examination of factors affecting performance. J Bus Venturing 12:315–339

    Google Scholar 

  • Light IH (1980) Ethnic enterprises in America. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Lingelbach D, De la Viña L, Ase P (2005) What’s distinctive about growth-oriented entrepreneurship in developing countries? UTSA College of Business Center for Global Entrepreneurship. Working Paper No. 1

  • Luk STK (1996) Success in Hong Kong: factors self-reported by successful small business owners. J Small Bus Manage 34:68–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Manolova T, Aimin Y (2002) Institutional constraints and entrepreneurial responses in a transforming economy. Int Small Bus J 20(2):163–184

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlow S, Patton D (2005) All credit to men? Entrepreneurship, finance, and gender. Entrep Theory Pract 29(6):717–735

    Google Scholar 

  • Maume DJ (1999) Glass ceilings and glass escalators. Occupational segregation and race and sex differences in managerial promotions. Work Occup 26(4):483–509

    Google Scholar 

  • McKernan SM (2002) The impact of microcredit programs on self employment profits. Do noncredit program aspects matter. Rev Econ Stat 84(1):93–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Mescon T, Stevens GE (1982) Women as entrepreneurs: a preliminary study of female realtors in Arizona. Ariz Bus 7:9–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Min PG (1984) From white-collar occupations to small business: Korean immigrants occupational adjustment. Sociol Q 25(Summer):333–352

    Google Scholar 

  • Minniti M, Arenius P (2003) Women in entrepreneurship. The entrepreneurial advantage of nations. First Annual Global Entrepreneurship Symposium

  • Minniti M, Allen IE, Langowitz N (2005) Global entrepreneurship monitor report on women and entrepreneurship. Babson College, The Centre for Women’s Leadership, and London Business School, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore DP, Buttner EH (1997) Women entrepreneurs: moving beyond the glass ceiling. Sage, Thousand Oaks

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller SL (2004) Gender gaps in potential for entrepreneurship across countries and cultures. J Dev Entrep 9(3):199–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller SL, Thomas AS, Jaeger AM (2001) National entrepreneurial potential: the role of culture, economic development, and political history. Adv Int Manag 14:221–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Neter J, Wasserman W, Kutner M (1985) Applied linear statistical models. Irwin, Homewood

    Google Scholar 

  • Noorderhaven GN, Koen IC, Beugelsdijk S (2002) Organizational culture and network embeddedness. Tilburg University centre discussion paper, pp 2002–2091

  • OECD (2002) OECD employment outlook. OECD, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Orhan M, Scott D (2001) Why women enter into entrepreneurship: an explanatory model. Women Manage Rev 16(5/6):232

    Google Scholar 

  • Orser B, Hogarth-Scott S (2003) Opting for growth: gender dimensions of choosing enterprise development. Can J Admin Sci 19(3):284–300

    Google Scholar 

  • Orser BJ, Riding AL, Manley K (2006) Women entrepreneurs and financial capital. Entrep Theory Pract 30(5):643

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker SC, Mirjam VP (2003) Explaining entrepreneurial performance: the effects of education and financial capital constraints. Working paper, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam

  • Pennings JM (1982) Organizational birth frequencies: an empirical investigation. Adm Sci Q 27:120–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell GN, Eddleston K (2008) The paradox of the contended female business owner. J Vocat Behav 73(1):24–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Psacharopoulos G, Tzannatos Z (1989) Female labor force participation: an international perspective. World Bank Res Obs 4(2):187–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Renzulli LA, Aldrich H, Moody H (2000) Family matters: gender, networks, and entrepreneurial outcomes. Soc Forces 79:523–546

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds PD, Miller B (1989) Race, gender, and entrepreneurship: participation in new firm start-ups. Presented at American Sociological Association annual meetings.

  • Reynolds PD, Miller B, Wilbur MR (1995) Explaining regional variation in business births and deaths: U.S. 1976–88. Small Bus Econ 7:389–407

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson PB, Sexton EA (1994) The effect of education and experience on self-employment success. J Bus Venturing 9:141–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Roomi MA, Parrott G (2008) Barriers to development and progression of women entrepreneurs in Pakistan. J Entrep 17(1):59–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Santarelli E, Piergiovanni R (1995) The determinants of firm start-up and entry in Italian producer services. Small Bus Econ 7(3):221–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheela W, Van Hoa TT (2004) Women entrepreneurs in a transition economy: the case of Vietnam. Int J Manag Decis Mak 5(1):1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Shim S, Eastlick MA (1998) Characteristics of Hispanic female business owners: an exploratory study. J Small Bus Manage 36(3):18–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Sigh SP, Reynolds RG, Muhammad S (2001) A gender-based performance analysis of micro and small enterprises in Java, Indonesia. J Small Bus Manage 39(2):174

    Google Scholar 

  • Stokes J, Riger S, Sullivan M (1995) Measuring perceptions of the working environment for women in corporate settings. Psychol Women Q 19:533–549

    Google Scholar 

  • Storey DJ (1999) Six steps to heaven: evaluating the impact of public policies to support small business in developed economies. In: Sexton DL, Landström H (eds) Handbook of entrepreneurship. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 176–194

    Google Scholar 

  • Syal P, Dhameja SK (2003) Entrepreneurship—key to women empowerment. www.techno-preneur.net/timeis/technology/SciTechJune03/entrepreneurship_womenempowerment

  • Tambunan T (2009) Women entrepreneurship in Asian developing countries: their development and main constraints. J Dev Agric Econ 1(2):027–040

    Google Scholar 

  • Taniguchi H (2002) Determinants of women's entry into self-employment. Soc Sci Q 83(3):875

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhlaner LM, Thurik AR (2007) Postmaterialism influencing total entrepreneurial activity across nations. J Evol Econ 17(2):161–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhlaner LM, Thurik AR, Hutjes J (2002) Post-materialism: a cultural factor influencing entrepreneurial activity across nations, ERIM Report ERS-2002-62- STR. Erasmus Research Institute for Management, Rotterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Sluis J, Van Praag M, Vijverberg W (2005) Entrepreneurship selection and performance: a meta analysis of the impact of education in developing economies. World Bank Econ Rev 19(2):225–261

    Google Scholar 

  • Verheul I (2005) Is there a (fe)male approach? understanding gender differences in entrepreneurship. Ph.D. Thesis, Erasmus Research Institute of Management (ERIM)

  • Verheul I, Uhlaner L, Thurik R (2005) Business accomplishments, gender and entrepreneurial self-image. J Bus Venturing 20:483–518

    Google Scholar 

  • Verheul I, Van Stel A, Thurik R (2006) Explaining female and male entrepreneurship at the country level. Entrep Reg Dev 18(2):151–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Vermeulen ME, Minor CW (1998) Context of career decisions: women reared in a rural community. Career Dev Q 46:230–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiler S, Bernasek A (2001) Dodging the glass ceiling? Networks and the new wave of women entrepreneurs. Soc Sci J 38(1):85–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Wennekers ARM, Uhlaner LM, Thurik R (2002) Entrepreneurship and its conditions: a macro perspective. Int J Entrep Educ 1(1):25–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Wennekers S, Van Stel A, Thurik R, Reynolds P (2005) Nascent entrepreneurship and economic development. Small Bus Econ 24(3):293–309

    Google Scholar 

  • White H (1980) A heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroskedasticity. Econometrica 48:817–838

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams DR (2004) Effects of childcare activities on the duration of self-employment in Europe. Entrep Theory Pract 28:467–486

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams JE, Satterwhite RC, Best DL (1999) Pan-cultural gender stereotypes revisited: the Five Factor Model. Sex Roles 40:513–525

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank (2001) Engendering development through gender equality in rights, resources, and voice. A World Bank Policy Research Report

  • Youkyoung M, Jaesoen J (2001) Women's employment policies in OECD Countries. Womens Stud Forum 17:135

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Management, Long Island University-C.W. Post, 720 Northern Blvd., Brookville, NY, 11548, USA

    Nada Kobeissi

Authors
  1. Nada Kobeissi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nada Kobeissi.

Additional information

I would like to thank the editor and the two anonymous reviewers for their feedbacks. The paper has benefited substantially from their insightful comments and suggestions.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kobeissi, N. Gender factors and female entrepreneurship: International evidence and policy implications. J Int Entrep 8, 1–35 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-010-0045-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-010-0045-y

Keywords

  • Entrepreneurship
  • Gender
  • International