Abstract
Background
While global change research has greatly expanded in recent years, it remains unclear how environmental change will impact the mobility of many organisms. Flight is an important mode of transportation that affects ecological functions, including mate location, foraging, and migration. However, the effects of increasing temperature and diet quality on flight remain largely unknown. Here, we explore the effects of rearing temperature and larval diet quality on the flight ability of an iconic and ecologically threatened migratory insect, the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus.
Experimental Design
Monarch larvae were reared at two temperatures (25 °C and 28 °C) and on three milkweed species with varying phytochemistry (Asclepias incarnata, Asclepias syriaca, and Asclepias curassavica) in a fully factorial experiment. We tested flight ability using an automated flight mill, which measured cumulative flight distance, duration, and instantaneous velocity.
Results
Higher rearing temperatures reduced monarch flight ability, and larval diet quality influenced forewing morphology. Dietary milkweed with higher cardenolide concentrations (A. curassavica) induced shorter, wider forewings whereas milkweed with low to intermediate cardenolides (A. incarnata and A. syriaca) induced longer, narrower forewings, which are considered better for gliding flight used during migration.
Implications for Insect Conservation
Our results provide evidence that projected increases in temperature and the subsequent expansion of tropical milkweed (A. curassavica) into the central breeding range of eastern North American migratory monarchs could reduce migration success. Further research is needed to identify mechanisms explaining the effects of diet and temperature on monarch flight ability and fitness, to ensure that appropriate conservation strategies are employed to preserve migratory populations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data will be made available in a Dryad Digital Repository upon acceptance of the manuscript.
References
Adams DC, Otarola-Castillo E (2013) geomorph: an R package for the collection and analysis of geometric morphometric shape data. Methods Ecol Evol 4(4):393–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.12035
Adams DC, Rohlf FJ, Slice DE (2004) Geometric morphometrics: ten years of progress following the 'revolution'. Ital J Zool 71(1):5–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/11250000409356545
Altizer S, Bartel R, Han BA, Inst M (2014) Animal migration and infectious disease risk. Influence of global environmental change on infectious disease dynamics: workshop summary. National Academies Press, Washington, pp 111–129
Altizer S, Davis AK (2010) Populations of monarch butterflies with different migratory behaviors show divergence in wing morphology. Evolution 64(4):1018–1028. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.00946.x
Altizer SM, Oberhauser KS (1999) Effects of the protozoan parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha on the fitness of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). J Invertebr Pathol 74(1):76–88. https://doi.org/10.1006/jipa.1999.4853
Altizer SM, Oberhauser KS, Brower LP (2000) Associations between host migration and the prevalence of a protozoan parasite in natural populations of adult monarch butterflies. Ecol Entomol 25(2):125–139. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2311.2000.00246.x
Anderson MJ (2001) A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. Austral Ecol 26(1):32–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2001.01070.pp.x
Andersson M (1994) Sexual selection, vol 1. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Arambourou H, Sanmartin-Villar I, Stoks R (2017) Wing shape-mediated carry-over effects of a heat wave during the larval stage on post-metamorphic locomotor ability. Oecologia 184(1):279–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-017-3846-z
Berns A (2012) A geometric morphometric analysis of wing shape variation in monarch butterflies Danaus plexippus. Honors Thesis: Bachelor's of Science, University of Michigan, Deep Blue
Bhattacharyya M, Chakraborty SK, Acharya SK (2019) Proboscis extension reflex in Apis florea (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in response to temperature. J Entomol Sci 54(3):238–249. https://doi.org/10.18474/jes18-70
Bonsignore CP, Bellamy C (2007) Daily activity and flight behaviour of adults of Capnodis tenebrionis (Coleoptera : Buprestidae). Eur J Entomol 104(3):425–431. https://doi.org/10.14411/eje.2007.062
Bradley CA, Altizer S (2005) Parasites hinder monarch butterfly flight: implications for disease spread in migratory hosts. Ecol Lett 8(3):290–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00722.x
Brower LP, Calvert WH, Hedrick LE, Christian J (1977) Biological observations on an overwintering colony of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus, Danaidae) in Mexico. J Lepid Soc 31(4):232–242
Brower LP, Malcolm SB (1991) Animal migrations - endangered phenomena. Am Zool 31(1):265–276
Calvo D, Molina JM (2005) Fecundity–body size relationship and other reproductive aspects of Streblote panda (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 98(2):191–196. https://doi.org/10.1603/0013-8746(2005)098[0191:FSRAOR]2.0.CO;2
Cendra PVG, Segura DF, Alberti AC, Vilardi JC (2014) Morphometric trait differentiation between a wild and a mass-reared population of Anastrepha fraterculus (Diptera: Tephritidae). Int J Trop Insect Sci 34:S82–S89. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1742758414000101
Center for Biological Diversity (2014) Petition to protect the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus plexippus) under the Endangered Species Act. 159. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/species/invertebrates/pdfs/Monarch_ESA_Petition.pdf. Accessed 28 Jan 2020
Clements AN (1955) The sources of energy for flight in mosquitoes. J Exp Biol 32(3):547–552
Cockrell BJ, Malcolm SB, Brower LP (1993) Time, temperature, and latitudinal constraints on the annual recolonization of eastern North America by the monarch butterfly. Biol Conserv Monarch Butterfly 38:233–251
Couture JJ, Serbin SP, Townsend PA (2015) Elevated temperature and periodic water stress alter growth and quality of common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) and monarch (Danaus plexippus) larval performance. Arthropod-Plant Interact 9(2):149–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829-015-9367-y
Damos P, Savopoulou-Soultani M (2012) Temperature-driven models for insect development and vital thermal requirements. Psyche. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/123405
Davis AK (2014) Intraspecific variation in wing colour is related to larval energy reserves in monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). Physiol Entomol 39(3):247–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/phen.12069
Davis AK, Chi J, Bradley C, Altizer S (2012) The redder the better: wing color predicts flight performance in monarch butterflies. PLoS ONE 7(7):6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041323
Davis AK, Farrey BD, Altizer S (2005) Variation in thermally induced melanism in monarch butterflies (Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae) from three North American populations. J Therm Biol 30(5):410–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.therbio.2005.04.003
De Block M, Stoks R (2007) Flight-related body morphology shapes mating success in a damselfly. Anim Behav 74:1093–1098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.01.023
de Roode JC, Pedersen AB, Hunter MD, Altizer S (2008) Host plant species affects virulence in monarch butterfly parasites. J Anim Ecol 77(1):120–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01305.x
Decker LE, Soule AJ, de Roode JC, Hunter MD (2019) Phytochemical changes in milkweed induced by elevated CO2 alter wing morphology but not toxin sequestration in monarch butterflies. Funct Ecol 33(3):411–421. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13270
Devoid C (2017) Conserving milkweed: the effects of environmental change and viral prevalence on Asclepias syriaca. Master's of Science, University of Rhode Island, Open Access Master's Theses
Dinh KV, Janssens L, Therry L, Gyulavari HA, Bervoets L, Stoks R (2016) Rapid evolution of increased vulnerability to an insecticide at the expansion front in a poleward-moving damselfly. Evol Appl 9(3):450–461. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12347
Dudley R, Srygley RB (2008) Airspeed adjustment and lipid reserves in migratory Neotropical butterflies. Funct Ecol 22(2):264–270. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01364.x
Faldyn MJ, Hunter MD, Elderd BD (2018) Climate change and an invasive, tropical milkweed: an ecological trap for monarch butterflies. Ecology 99(5):1031–1038. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2198
Flinn PW, Hagstrum DW (2011) Movement of Rhyzopertha dominica in response to temperature gradients in stored wheat. J Stored Prod Res 47(4):407–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2011.08.003
Forsman A, Betzholtz P-E, Franzén M (2016) Faster poleward range shifts in moths with more variable colour patterns. Nat Sci Rep 6:36265. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36265
Fraimout A, Jacquemart P, Villarroel B, Aponte DJ, Decamps T, Herrel A, Cornette R, Debat V (2018) Phenotypic plasticity of Drosophila suzukii wing to developmental temperature: implications for flight. J Exp Biol. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.166868
Fraser KC, Davies KTA, Davy CM, Ford AT, Flockhart DTT, Martins EG (2018) Tracking the conservation promise of movement ecology. Front Ecol Evol 6:8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2018.00150
Frazier MR, Harrison JF, Kirkton SD, Roberts SP (2008) Cold rearing improves cold-flight performance in Drosophila via changes in wing morphology. J Exp Biol 211(13):2116–2122. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.019422
Freedman MG, Jason C, Ramírez SR, Strauss SY (2020) Host plant adaptation during contemporary range expansion in the monarch butterfly. Evolution 74(2):377–391. https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.13914
Gower JC (1975) Generalized procrustes analysis. Psychometrika 40(1):33–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02291478
Gowler CD, Leon KE, Hunter MD, de Roode JC (2015) Secondary defense chemicals in milkweed reduce parasite infection in monarch butterflies Danaus plexippus. J Chem Ecol 41(6):520–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-015-0586-6
Gunn A, Gatehouse AG (1988) The development of enzymes in flight-muscle metabolism in Spodoptera exempta and Mythimna separata. Comp Biochem Physiol B 91(2):315–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-0491(88)90148-4
Gyulavari HA, Therry L, Devai G, Stoks R (2014) Sexual selection on flight endurance, flight-related morphology and physiology in a scrambling damselfly. Evol Ecol 28(4):639–654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-014-9703-1
Hanley D, Miller NG, Flockhart DTT, Norris DR (2013) Forewing pigmentation predicts migration distance in wild-caught migratory monarch butterflies. Behav Ecol 24(5):1108–1113. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/art037
Hedenstrom A (1993) Migration by soaring or flapping flight in birds - the relative importance of energy-cost and speed. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B 342(1302):353–361. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1993.0164
Helms JA, Godfrey AP, Ames T, Bridge ES (2016) Predator foraging altitudes reveal the structure of aerial insect communities. Sci Rep 6:10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28670
IPCC (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J, Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V, Midgley PM (eds.) Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.
Jantzen B, Eisner T (2008) Hindwings are unnecessary for flight but essential for execution of normal evasive flight in Lepidoptera. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(43):16636–16640. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0807223105
Johnson H, Solensky MJ, Satterfield DA, Davis AK (2014) Does skipping a meal matter to a butterfly’s appearance? Effects of larval food stress on wing morphology and color in monarch butterflies. PLoS ONE 9(4):9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093492
Johnston MK, Haste EM, Klinger KR, Lambruschi MP, Lewis AD, Stolz DF, Winter AM, Bouman MJ, Redlinski I (2019) Estimating milkweed abundance in metropolitan areas under existing and user-defined scenarios. Front Ecol Evol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00210
Kaiser A, Merckx T, Van Dyck H (2016) The Urban Heat Island and its spatial scale dependent impact on survival and development in butterflies of different thermal sensitivity. Ecol Evol 6(12):4129–4140. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.2166
Kautz M, Imron MA, Dworschak K, Schopf R (2016) Dispersal variability and associated population-level consequences in tree-killing bark beetles. Mov Ecol 4:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-016-0074-9
Kehl T, Bensch J, Bohm F, Kniepkamp BO, Leonhardt V, Schwieger S, Fischer K (2015) Fat and sassy: factors underlying male mating success in a butterfly. Entomol Exp Appl 155(3):257–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/eea.12305
Klemola T, Andersson T, Ruohomaki K (2008) Fecundity of the autumnal moth depends on pooled geometrid abundance without a time lag: implications for cyclic population dynamics. J Anim Ecol 77(3):597–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01369.x
Kunz RP, Schulze RE, Scholes RJ (1995) An approach to modelling spatial changes of plant carbon:nitrogen ratios in southern Africa in relation to anticipated global climate change. J Biogeogr 22(2–3):401–408. https://doi.org/10.2307/2845936
Lany NK, Ayres MP, Stange EE, Sillett TS, Rodenhouse NL, Holmes RT (2016) Breeding timed to maximize reproductive success for a migratory songbird: the importance of phenological asynchrony. Oikos 125(5):656–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.02412
Lemoine NP, Capdevielle JN, Parker JD (2015) Effects of in situ climate warming on monarch caterpillar (Danaus plexippus) development. Peerj 3:10. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1293
Le Roy C, Debat V, Llaurens V (2019) Adaptive evolution of butterfly wing shape: from morphology to behaviour. Biol Rev 94(4):1261–1281. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12500
Malcolm SB, Brower LP (1989) Evolutionary and ecological implications of cardenolide sequestration in the monarch butterfly. Experientia 45(3):284–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01951814
Mayor SJ, Guralnick RP, Tingley MW, Otegui J, Withey JC, Elmendorf SC, Andrew ME, Leyk S, Pearse IS, Schneider DC (2017) Increasing phenological asynchrony between spring green-up and arrival of migratory birds. Sci Rep 7:10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-02045-z
McKay AF, Ezenwa VO, Altizer S (2016) Unravelling the costs of flight for immune defenses in the migratory monarch butterfly. Integr Comp Biol 56(2):278–289. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icw056
Merckx T, Kaiser A, Van Dyck H (2018) Increased body size along urbanization gradients at both community and intraspecific level in macro-moths. Glob Change Biol 24(8):3837–3848. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14151
Miles LS, Breitbart ST, Wagner HH, Johnson MTJ (2019) Urbanization shapes the ecology and evolution of plant-arthropod herbivore interactions. Front Ecol Evol 7:310. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00310
Moreira X, Abdala-Roberts L, Berny Mier y Teran JC, Covelo F, de la Mata R, Francisco M, Hardwick B, Matheus Pires R, Roslin T, Schigel DS, ten Hoopen JPJG, Timmermans BGH, van Dijk LJA, Castagneyrol B, Tack AJM (2019) Impacts of urbanization on insect herbivory and plant defences in oak trees. Oikos 128(1):113–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.05497
Moriyama M, Numata H (2019) Ecophysiological responses to climate change in cicadas. Physiol Entomol 44(2):65–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/phen.12283
Murray TJ, Ellsworth DS, Tissue DT, Riegler M (2013) Interactive direct and plant-mediated effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 and temperature on a eucalypt-feeding insect herbivore. Glob Change Biol 19(5):1407–1416. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12142
Nifosi J (2016) Effects of rising temperature on interactions between monarch butterflies and their parasites. Master's Degree, University of Michigan, Deep Blue
Oberhauser KS (1997) Fecundity, lifespan and egg mass in butterflies: effects of male-derived nutrients and female size. Funct Ecol 11(2):166–175. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2435.1997.00074.x
Ortega Ancel A, Eastwood R, Vogt D, Ithier C, Smith M, Wood R, Kovac M (2017) Aerodynamic evaluation of wing shape and wing orientation in four butterfly species using numerical simulations and a low-speed wind tunnel, and its implications for the design of flying micro-robots. Interface Focus 7:20160087. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2016.0087
Pelton EM, Schultz CB, Jepsen SJ, Black SH, Crone EE (2019) Western monarch population plummets: status, probably causes, and recommended conservation actions. Front Ecol Evol 7:7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00258
Portman SL, Kariyat RR, Johnston MA, Stephenson AG, Marden JH (2015) Cascading effects of host plant inbreeding on the larval growth, muscle molecular composition, and flight capacity of an adult herbivorous insect. Funct Ecol 29(3):328–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12358
Reim E, Eichhorn D, Roy JD, Steinhoff POM, Fischer K (2019) Nutritional stress reduces flight performance and exploratory behavior in a butterfly. Insect Sci 26(5):897–910. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.12596
Robillard CM, Coristine LE, Soares RN, Kerr JT (2015) Facilitating climate-change-induced range shifts across continental land-use barriers. Conserv Biol 29(6):1586–1595. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12556
Rohlf FJ, Slice D (1990) Extensions of the Procrustes method for the optimal superimposition of landmarks. Syst Zool 39(1):40–59. https://doi.org/10.2307/2992207
Sarvary MA, Hight SD, Carpenter JE, Bloem S, Bloem KA, Dorn S (2008) Identification of factors influencing flight performance of field-collected and laboratory-reared, overwintered, and nonoverwintered cactus moths fed with field-collected host plants. Environ Entomol 37(5):1291–1299. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225x(2008)37[1291:iofifp]2.0.co;2
Satterfield DA, Marra PP, Sillett TS, Altizer S (2018) Responses of migratory species and their pathogens to supplemental feeding. Philos Trans R Soc B 373(1745):14. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0094
Semmens BX, Semmens DJ, Thogmartin WE, Wiederholt R, Lopez-Hoffman L, Diffendorfer JE, Pleasants JM, Oberhauser KS, Taylor OR (2016) Quasi-extinction risk and population targets for the Eastern, migratory population of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). Sci Rep 6:7. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep23265
Sherratt, E (2016) Quick guide to geomorph 3.0.2. https://www.emmasherratt.com/uploads/2/1/6/0/21606686/quick_guide_to_geomorph-_introduction.html. Accessed 20 June 2020
Smith RJ, Hines A, Richmond S, Merrick M, Drew A, Fargo R (2000) Altitudinal variation in body size and population density of Nicrophorus investigator (Coleoptera : Silphidae). Environ Entomol 29(2):290–298. https://doi.org/10.1603/0046-225x(2000)029[0290:avibsa]2.0.co;2
Stoks R (2001) Food stress and predator-induced stress shape developmental performance in a damselfly. Oecologia 127(2):222–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420000595
Taha H (1997) Urban climates and heat islands: Albedo, evapotranspiration, and anthropogenic heat. Energy Build 25(2):99–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(96)00999-1
Tan JY, Wainhouse D, Day KR, Morgan G (2010) Flight ability and reproductive development in newly-emerged pine weevil Hylobius abietis and the potential effects of climate change. Agric For Entomol 12(4):427–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-9563.2010.00491.x
Tanaka H, Hoshino K, Matsumoto K (2005) Flight dynamics of a butterfly-type ornithopter. Intell Robots Syst. https://doi.org/10.1109/IROS.2005.1544999
Tao LL, Berns AR, Hunter MD (2014) Why does a good thing become too much? Interactions between foliar nutrients and toxins determine performance of an insect herbivore. Funct Ecol 28(1):190–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12163
Tao LL, Hunter MD (2015) Effects of soil nutrients on the sequestration of plant defence chemicals by the specialist insect herbivore Danaus plexippus. Ecol Entomol 40(2):123–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/een.12168
Tompkins JL, Kotiaho JS (2001) Fluctuating asymmetry. Encyclopedia of life sciences (March 2002 ed.). www.els.net: Macmillan Publishers Ltd, Nature Publishing Group, pp 1–5
Urquhart FA, Urquhart NR (1978) Autumnal migration routes of the eastern population of the monarch butterfly (Danaus p. plexippus L.; Danaidae; Lepidoptera) in North America to the overwintering site in the Neovolcanic Plateau of Mexico. Can J Zool 56(8):1759–1764
Urquhart FA, Urquhart NR, Munger F (1968) A study of a continuously breeding population of Danaus plexippus in southern California compared to a migratory population and its significance in the study of insect movement. J Res Lepid 7(4):169–181
Waldbauer GP (1982) The consumption and utilization of food by insects. Curr Contents/Agric Biol Environ Sci 7:22
Walther GR, Post E, Convey P, Menzel A, Parmesan C, Beebee TJC, Fromentin J-M, Hoegh-Guldber O, Bairlein F (2002) Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature 416(6879):389–395. https://doi.org/10.1038/416389a
Watanabe YY (2016) Flight mode affects allometry of migration range in birds. Ecol Lett 19(8):907–914. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12627
Wiegrebe H, Witchl M (1993) High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of cardenolides in Digitalis leaves after solid-phase extraction. J Chromatogr 630(1–2):402–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9673(93)80478-q
Yama H, Soga M, Evans MJ, Iida T, Koike S (2019) The morphological changes of moths on Nakajima Island, Hokkaido. Japan Environ Entomol 48(2):291–298. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvz011
Zahran NF, Hamza AF, Sayed WAA (2018) Impact of certain additives to diet on the biological and biochemical characteristics of peach fruit fly, Bactrocera zonata. J Radiat Res Appl Sci 11(4):423–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2018.07.007
Zalucki MP (1982) Temperature and rate of development in Danaus plexippus L. and D. chrysippus L. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Aust J Entomol 21(4):241–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-6055.1982.tb01803.x
Zalucki MP, Clarke AR (2004) Monarchs across the Pacific: the Columbus hypothesis revisited. Biol J Linn Soc 82:111–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00322.x
Zelditch ML, Swiderski DL, Sheets HD (2012) Geometric morphometrics for biologists: a primer, 2nd edn. Academic Press, Cambridge, pp 1–478
Zhang PY, Bakker ES, Zhang M, Xu J (2016) Effects of warming on Potamogeton crispus growth and tissue stoichiometry in the growing season. Aquat Bot 128:13–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquabot.2015.08.004
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to H. B. Streit, A. R. Meier, J. Kristofik, K. Moriarty, T. McClanaghan, and K. Markiewicz for their lab and field assistance in the completion of this project. Thanks also to M. Palmer and P. Girard for their aid with milkweed propagation in the greenhouses at the University of Michigan Matthaei Botanical Gardens. This work was completed in the research facilities of the University of Michigan and was funded by National Science Foundation Grant DEB-1256115 awarded to M. D. Hunter.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AJS and MDH designed the experiment; LED provided butterflies and expertise during larval development and flight trials; AJS collected the data and analyzed it with MDH; AJS wrote the manuscript; all authors contributed to drafts.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Soule, A.J., Decker, L.E. & Hunter, M.D. Effects of diet and temperature on monarch butterfly wing morphology and flight ability. J Insect Conserv 24, 961–975 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-020-00267-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-020-00267-7