Skip to main content

Almond orchards with living ground cover host more wild insect pollinators

Journal of Insect Conservation volume 17, pages 1011–1025 (2013)Cite this article

Abstract

Wild pollinators are becoming more valuable to global agriculture as the commercial honeybee industry is increasingly affected by disease and other stressors. Perennial tree crops are particularly reliant on insect pollination, and are often pollen limited. Research on how different tree crop production systems influence the richness and abundance of wild pollinators is, however, limited. We investigated, for the first time, the richness and abundance of potential wild pollinators in commercial temperate almond orchards in Australia, and compared them to potential pollinator communities in proximate native vegetation. We quantified ground cover variables at each site and assessed the value of ground cover on the richness and abundance of potential wild pollinators in commercial almond systems focussing on three common taxa: bees, wasps and flies. More insects were caught in orchards with living ground cover than in native vegetation or orchards without ground cover, although overall species richness was highest in native vegetation. Percent ground cover was positively associated with wasp richness and abundance, and native bee richness, but flies showed no association with ground cover. The strongest positive relationship was between native bee abundance and the richness of ground cover plants. Our results suggest that maintaining living ground cover within commercial almond orchards could provide habitat and resources for potential wild pollinators, particularly native bees. These insects have the potential to provide a valuable ecosystem service to pollinator-dependent crops such as almond.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

References

  • Almond Board of Australia (2013) Almond Insights 2012–2013. Almond Board of Australia Inc. http://australianalmonds.com.au/industry/resources_stats_reports. Accessed 26 June 2013

  • Altieri MA (2004) Linking ecologists and traditional farmers in the search for sustainable agriculture. Front Ecol Environ 2:35–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin AD, Yeates DK, Cassis G, Fletcher MJ et al (2004) Insects ‘Down Under’—diversity, endemism and evolution of the Australian insect fauna: examples from select orders. Aust J Entomol 43:216–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Australian Nut Industry Council (n.d.) Industry overview, ANIC. Australian nut industry council http://nutindustry.org.au/ANIC/Industry-Overview.asp. Accessed 15 March 2011

  • Batley M, Hogendoorn K (2009) Diversity and conservation status of native Australian bees. Apidologie 40:347–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baum KA, Wallen KE (2011) Potential bias in pan trapping as a function of floral abundance. Jr Kansas Entomol Soc 84:155–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanche KR, Ludwig JA, Cunningham SA (2006) Proximity to rainforest enhances pollination and fruit set in orchards. J Appl Ecol 43:1182–1187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bosch J, Blas M (1994) Foraging behaviour and pollinating efficiency of Osmia cornuta and Apis mellifera on almond (Hymenoptera, Megachilidae and Apidae). Appl Entomol Zool 29:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Brittain C, Kremen C, Klein A-M (2013) Biodiversity buffers pollination from changes in environmental conditions. Glob Change Biol 19:540–547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown MW (2012) Role of biodiversity in integrated fruit production in eastern North American orchards. Agr Forest Entomol 14:89–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Meteorology (2013) Climate data online. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/. Accessed 5 March 2013

  • Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Cane JH, Minckley RL, Kervin LJ (2000) Sampling bees (Hymenoptera: Apiformes) for pollinator community studies: pitfalls of pan trapping. Jr Kansas Entomol Soc 73:225–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Carreck NL, Williams IH (2002) Food for insect pollinators on farmland: insect visits to flowers of annual seed mixtures. J Insect Conserv 6:13–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carvalheiro LG, Seymour CL, Veldtman R, Nicolson SW (2010) Pollination services decline with distance from natural habitat even in biodiversity-rich areas. J Appl Ecol 47:810–820

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carvalheiro LG, Veldtman R, Shenkute AG, Tesfay GB, Walter C, Pirk W, Donaldson JS, Nicolson SW (2011) Natural and within-farmland biodiversity enhances crop productivity. Ecol Lett 14:251–259

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chacoff NP, Aizen MA (2006) Edge effects on flower-visiting insects in grapefruit plantations bordering premontane subtropical forest. J Appl Ecol 43:18–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke KR, Ainsworth M (1993) A method of linking multivariate community structure to environmental variables. Mar Ecol-Prog Ser 92:205–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colloff MJ, Fokstuen G, Boland T (2003) Toward the triple bottom line in sustainable horticulture: biodiversity, ecosystem services and an environmental management system for citrus orchards in the Riverland of South Australia. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, ACT

    Google Scholar 

  • Colwell RK (2013) EstimateS: statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples. Version 9.1. User’s Guide and application published at: http://purl.oclc.org/estimates

  • Colwell RK, Coddington JA (1994) Estimating biodiversity through extrapolation. Philos T R Soc B 345:101–118

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colwell RK, Mao CX, Chang J (2004) Interpolating, extrapolating, and comparing incidence-based species accumulation curves. Ecology 85:2717–2727

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colwell RK, Chao A, Gotelli NJ, Lin S-Y, Mao CX, Chazdon RL, Longino JT (2012) Models and estimators linking individual-based and sample-based rarefactio, extrapolation and comparison of assemblages. Jr Plant Ecol 5:3–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham SA, FitzGibbon F, Heard TA (2002) The future of pollinators for Australian agriculture. Aust J Agr Res 53:893–900

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Degrandi-Hoffman G (2001) The pollination of almonds. Am Bee J 141:655–657

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebeling A, Klein A-M, Schumacher J, Weisser WW, Tscharntke T (2008) How does plant richness affect pollinator richness and temporal stability of flower visits? Oikos 117:1808–1815

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebeling A, Klein A-M, Tscharntke T (2011) Plant-flower interaction webs: Temporal stability and pollinator specialization increases along an experimental plant diversity gradient. Basic Appl Ecol 12:300–309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eilers EJ, Klein A-M (2009) Landscape context and management effects on an important insect pest and its natural enemies in almond. Biol Control 51:388–394

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faith DP, Minchin PR, Belbin L (1987) Compositional dissimilarity as a robust measure of ecological distance. Vegetatio 69:57–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis CA, Porter P (2011) Ecology in sustainable agriculture practices and systems. Crit Rev Plant Sci 30:64–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fründ J, Linsenmair KE, Blüthgen N (2010) Pollinator diversity and specialization in relation to flower diversity. Oikos 119:1581–1590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaffney A, Allen GR, Brown PH (2011) Insect visitation to flowering hybrid carrot seed crops. New Zeal J Crop Hort 39:79–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gámez-Virués S, Gurr G, Raman A, La Salle J, Nicol H (2009) Effects of flowering groundcover vegetation on diversity and activity of wasps in a farm shelterbelt in temperate Australia. Biocontrol 54:211–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garibaldi LA, Steffan-Dewenter I, Kremen C et al (2011) Stability of pollination services decreases with isolation from natural areas despite honey bee visits. Ecol Lett 14:1062–1072

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garibaldi LA, Steffan-Dewenter I, Winfree R et al (2013) Wild pollinators enhance fruit set of crops regardless of honey bee abundance. Science 339:1608–1611

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gattone SA, Di Battista T (2009) A functional approach to diversity profiles. Appl Statist 58:267–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Gemmill-Herren B, Ochieng AO (2008) Role of native bees and natural habitats in eggplant (Solanum melongena) pollination in Kenya. Agr Ecosys Environ 127:31–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez JA, Llewellyn C, Basch G, Sutton PB, Dyson JS, Jones CA (2011) The effects of cover crops and conventional tillage on soil and runoff loss in vineyards and olive groves in several Mediterranean countries. Soil Use Manage 27:502–514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gomiero T, Pimentel D, Paoletti MG (2011) Environmental impact of different agricultural management practices: conventional vs. organic agriculture. Crit Rev Plant Sci 30:95–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotelli NJ, Colwell RK (2001) Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness. Ecol Lett 4:379–391

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grasswitz TR, James DG (2009) Influence of hop yard ground flora on invertebrate pests of hops and their natural enemies. J Appl Entomol 133:210–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gruber B, Eckel K, Everaars J, Dormann CF (2011) On managing the red mason bee (Osmia bicornis) in apple orchards. Apidologie 42:564–576

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grundel R, Jean RP, Frohnapple KJ, Glowacki GA, Scott PE, Pavlovic NB (2010) Floral and nesting resources, habitat structure, and fire influence bee distribution across an open-forest gradient. Ecol Appl 20:1678–1692

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haaland C, Naisbit RE, Bersier L-F (2011) Sown wildflower strips for insect conservation: a review. Insect Conserv Diver 4:60–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan M, Kraemer M (2010) Agricultural surroundings support flower-visitor networks in an Afrotropical rain forest. Biol Conserv 143:1654–1663

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton J, Yeates D, Hastings D et al (2006) On the fly: the interactive atlas and key to Australian fly families (CD-ROM). Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra, ACT

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan PD (2001) PAST: paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Paeleontol Electron 4(1), 9 pp. http://palaeo-electronica.org/2001_1/past/issue1_01.htm. Accessed 14 Nov 2010

  • Hartemink AE (2005) Plantation agriculture in the tropics. Environmental issues. Outlook Agr 34:11–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heard TA (1999) The role of stingless bees in crop pollination. Annu Rev Entomol 44:183–206

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henry M, Béguin M, Requier F, Rollin O, Odoux J-F, Aupinel P, Aptel J, Tchamitchian S, Decourtye A (2012) A common pesticide decreases foraging success and survival in honey bees. Science 336:348–350

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hill MO (1973) Diversity and evenness: a unifying notation and its consequences. Ecology 54:427–432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill SJ, Stephenson DW, Taylor BK (1985) Almond pollination studies: pollen production and viability, flower emergence and cross-pollination tests. Aust J Exp Agr 25:697–704

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoehn P, Steffan-Dewenter I, Tscharntke T (2010) Relative contribution of agroforestry, rainforest and openland to local and regional bee diversity. Biodivers Conserv 19:2189–2200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooks CRR, Johnson MW (2004) Using undersown clovers as living mulches: effects on yields, lepidopterous pest infestations, and spider densities in a Hawaiian broccoli agroecosystem. Int J Pest Manage 50:115–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horton DR, Broers DA, Lewis RR, Granatstein D, Zack RS, Unruh TR, Moldenke AR, Brown JJ (2003) Effects of mowing frequency on densities of natural enemies in three Pacific Northwest pear orchards. Entomol Exp Appl 106:135–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyvönen T, Huusela-Veistola E (2008) Arable weeds as indicators of agricultural intensity—a case study from Finland. Biol Conserv 141:2857–2864

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IBM Corporation (2011) IBM SPSS statistics version 20. IBM Corporation, Somers, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson JF (1996) Gene flow in pollen in commercial almond orchards. Sex Plant Reprod 9:367–369

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones GA, Gillett JL (2005) Intercropping with sunflowers to attract beneficial insects in organic agriculture. Fla Entomol 88:91–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jost L (2006) Entropy and diversity. Oikos 113:363–375

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kearns CA (2001) North American Dipteran pollinators: assessing their value and conservation status. Conserv Ecol 5: article 5. http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss1/art5/. Accessed 11 Jan 2013

  • Kehinde T, Samways MJ (2012) Endemic pollinator response to organic vs. conventional farming and landscape context in the Cape Floristic Region biodiversity hotspot. Agr Ecosys Enviro 146:162–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy CM, Lonsdorf E, Neel MC et al (2013) A global quantitative synthesis of local and landscape effects on wild bee pollinators in agroecosystems. Ecol Lett. doi:10.1111/ele.12082

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kevan PG, Baker HG (1983) Insects as flower visitors and pollinators. Annu Rev Entomol 28:407–453

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein A-M, Vaissière BE, Cane JH, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham SA, Kremen C, Tscharntke T (2007) Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proc R Soc B 274:303–313

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein A-M, Brittain C, Hendrix SD, Thorp R, Williams N, Kremen C (2012) Wild pollination services to California almond rely on semi-natural habitat. J Appl Ecol 49:723–732

    Google Scholar 

  • Kremen C, Williams NM, Aizen MA et al (2007) Pollination and other ecosystem services provided by mobile organisms: a conceptual framework for the effects of land-use change. Ecol Lett 10:299–314

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kremer RJ, Kussman RD (2011) Soil quality in a pecan-kura clover alley cropping system in the Midwestern USA. Agroforest Sys 83:213–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson BMH, Kevan PG, Inouye DW (2001) Flies and flowers: taxonomic diversity of anthophiles and pollinators. Can Entomol 133:439–465

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laubertie EA, Wratten SD, Sedcole JR (2006) The role of odour and visual cues in the pan-trap catching of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae). Ann Appl Biol 148:173–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lebuhn G, Droege S, Connor EF et al (2013) Detecting insect pollinator declines on regional and global scales. Conserv Biol 27:113–120

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leinster T, Cobbold CA (2012) Measuring diversity: the importance of species similarity. Ecology 93:477–489

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lentini PE, Martin TG, Gibbons P, Fischer J, Cunningham SA (2012) Supporting wild pollinators in a temperate agricultural landscape: maintaining mosaics of natural features and production. Biol Conserv 149:84–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letourneau DK, Bothwell SG (2008) Comparison of organic and conventional farms: challenging ecologists to make biodiversity functional. Front Ecol Environ 6:430–438

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letourneau DK, Armbrecht I, Rivera BS et al (2011) Does plant diversity benefit agroecosystems? A synthetic review. Ecol Appl 21:9–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu C, Whittaker RJ, Ma K, Malcolm JR (2007) Unifying and distinguishing diversity ordering methods for comparing communities. Popul Ecol 49:89–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowenstein DM, Huseth AS, Groves RL (2012) Response of wild bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila) to surrounding land cover in Wisconsin pickling cucumber. Environ Entomol 41:532–540

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Magurran AE (2004) Measuring biological diversity. Blackwell Publishing, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandelik Y, Roll U (2009) Diversity patterns of wild bees in almond orchards and their surrounding landscape. Israel J Plant Sci 57:185–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandelik Y, Winfree R, Neeson T, Kremen C (2012) Complementary habitat use by wild bees in agro-natural landscapes. Ecol Appl 22:1535–1546

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer C, Adler L, Armbruster WC et al (2011) Pollination ecology in the 21st century: key questions for future research. J Poll Ecol 3:8–23

    Google Scholar 

  • McArdle BH, Anderson MJ (2004) Variance heterogeneity, transformations, and models of species abundance: a cautionary tale. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 61:1294–1302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melo AS, Pereira RAS, Santos AJ, Shepherd GJ, Machado G, Medeiros HF, Sawaya RJ (2003) Comparing species richness among assemblages using sample units: why not use extrapolation methods to standardise different sample sizes? Oikos 101:398–410

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menhinick EF (1964) A comparison of some species-individuals diversity indices applied to samples of field insects. Ecology 45:859–861

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michener CD (1979) Biogeography of the bees. Ann Mo Bot Gard 66:277–347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NSW Agriculture (2002) Irrigation for horticulture in the mallee. NSW Agriculture, Orange, NSW

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara RB, Kotze DJ (2010) Do not log-transform count data. Methods Ecol Evol 1:118–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obrist MK, Duelli P (2010) Rapid biodiversity assessment of arthropods for monitoring average local species richness and related ecosystem services. Biodivers Conserv 19:2201–2220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver I, Beattie AJ (1996) Invertebrate morphospecies as surrogates for species: a case study. Conserv Biol 10:99–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patil GP, Taillie C (1982) Diversity as a concept and its measurement. Jr Am Stat Assoc 77:548–561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinke G, Pal R (2009) Floristic composition and conservation value of the stubble-field weed community, dominated by Stachys annua in western Hungary. Biologia 64:279–291

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potts SG, Vulliamy B, Dafni A, Ne’eman G, Willmer P (2003) Linking bees and flowers: how do floral communities structure pollinator communities? Ecology 84:2628–2642

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potts SG, Biesmeijer JC, Kremen C, Neumann P, Schweiger O, Kunin WE (2010) Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers. Trends Ecol Evol 25:345–353

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor E, Nol E, Burke D, Crins WJ (2012) Responses of insect pollinators and understory plants to silviculture in northern hardwood forests. Biodivers Conserv 21:1703–1740

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pywell RF, Meek WR, Hulmes L, Hulmes S, James KL, Nowakowski M, Carvell C (2011) Management to enhance pollen and nectar resources for bumblebees and butterflies within intensively farmed landscapes. J Insect Conserv 15:853–864

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos ME, Benítez E, García PA, Robles AB (2010) Cover crops under different management vs. frequent tillage in almond orchards in semiarid conditions: effects on soil quality. Appl Soil Ecol 44:6–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rattigan K, Hill SJ (1987) Relationship between temperature and flowering in almond—effect of location. Aust J Exp Agr 27:905–908

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raven PH, Yeates DK (2007) Australian biodiversity: threats for the present, opportunities for the future. Aust J Entomol 46:177–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricketts TH, Regetz J, Steffan-Dewenter I et al (2008) Landscape effects on crop pollination services: are there general patterns? Ecol Lett 11:499–515

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Colmenero M, Bienes R, Marques MJ (2011) Soil and water conservation dilemmas associated with the use of green cover in steep vineyards. Soil Till Res 117:211–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samnegård U, Persson AS, Smith HG (2011) Gardens benefit bees and enhance pollination in intensively managed farmland. Biol Conserv 144:2602–2606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders ME, Luck GW (2013) Pan trap catches of pollinator insects vary with habitat. Aust J Entomol 52:106–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seavy NE, Quader S, Alexander JD, Ralph CJ (2005) Generalised Linear Models and point count data: statistical considerations for the design and analysis of monitoring studies. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report, PSW-GTR-191, pp 744–753. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr191/psw_gtr191_0744-0753_seavy.pdf. Accessed 24 Feb 2012

  • Sharley DJ, Hoffmann AA, Thomson LJ (2008) The effects of soil tillage on beneficial invertebrates within the vineyard. Agr Forest Entomol 10:233–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sileshi G (2006) Selecting the right statistical model for analysis of insect count data by using information theoretic measures. Bull Entomol Res 96:479–488

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spivak M, Mader E, Vaughan M, Euliss NH Jr (2011) The plight of the bees. Environ Sci Technol 45:34–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steffan-Dewenter I, Leschke K (2003) Effects of habitat management on vegetation and above-ground nesting bees and wasps of orchard meadows in Central Europe. Biodivers Conserv 12:1953–1968

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens NB, Stephens CJ, Iqbal M, Jennings JT, La Salle J, Austin AD (2007) What wasp is that? An interactive identification guide to the Australasian families of Hymenoptera (CD-ROM). Australian Biological Resources Study, Canberra, ACT

    Google Scholar 

  • Tedders WL (1983) Insect management in deciduous orchard ecosystems: habitat manipulation. Environ Manage 7:29–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thevathasan NV, Gordon AM (2004) Ecology of tree intercropping systems in the North temperate region: experiences from southern Ontario, Canada. Agroforest Sys 61–2:257–268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson JD, Goodell K (2001) Pollen removal and deposition by honeybee and bumblebee visitors to apple and almond flowers. J Appl Ecol 38:1032–1044

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tóthmérész B (1995) Comparison of different methods for diversity ordering. J Veg Sci 6:283–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuell JK, Isaacs R (2009) Elevated pan traps to monitor bees in flowering crop canopies. Entomol Exp Appl 131:93–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • vanEngelsdorp D, Hayes J Jr, Underwood RM, Pettis J (2008) A survey of honey bee colony losses in the U.S., Fall 2007 to Spring 2008. PLoS ONE 3:e4071

  • Vezvaei A (1994) Pollination studies in almond. PhD Thesis, University of Adelaide

  • Vezvaei A, Jackson JF (1995) Effect of pollen parent and stages of flower development on almond nut production. Aust J Exp Agr 35:109–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vrdoljak SM, Samways MJ (2012) Optimising coloured pan traps to survey flower visiting insects. J Insect Conserv 16:345–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walton NJ, Isaacs R (2011) Influence of native flowering plant strips on natural enemies and herbivores in adjacent blueberry fields. Environ Entomol 40:697–705

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warton DI, Hui FKC (2011) The arcsine is asinine: the analysis of proportions in ecology. Ecology 92:3–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson JC, Wolf AT, Ascher JS (2011) Forested landscapes promote richness and abundance of native bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila) in Wisconsin apple orchards. Environ Entomol 40:621–632

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weinbaum SA (1985) Role of natural self-pollination in self-fruitfulness of almond. Sci Hortic-Amsterdam 27:295–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westphal C, Bommarco R, Carré G, Lamborn E et al (2008) Measuring bee diversity in different European habitats and biogeographical regions. Ecol Monogr 78:653–671

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitford WG (1996) The importance of the biodiversity of soil biota in arid ecosystems. Biodiv Conserv 5:185–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson J (2012) Almonds in Australia: from pioneer planting to prime production. Almond Board of Australia, Berri, SA

    Google Scholar 

  • Winfree R, Griswold T, Kremen C (2007) Effect of human disturbance on bee communities in a forested ecosystem. Conserv Biol 21:213–223

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winfree R, Bartomeus I, Cariveau DP (2011) Native pollinators in anthropogenic habitats. Annu Rev Ecol Evol S 42:1–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winqvist C, Ahnström J, Bengtsson J (2012) Effects of organic farming on biodiversity and ecosystem services: taking landscape complexity into account. Ann NY Acad Sci 1249:191–203

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yong KE, Li Y, Hendrix SD (2012) Habitat choice of multiple pollinators in almond trees and its potential effect on pollen movement and productivity: a theoretical approach using the Shigesada-Kawasaki-Teramoto model. J Theor Biol 305:103–109

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Thank you to Select Harvests and Manna Farms for allowing access to their almond orchards; James Abell and Katrina Lumb for field assistance; and Geoff Gurr for helpful guidance and encouragement during planning of the project. Ken Walker provided taxonomic identification of bee species. Two anonymous reviewers provided valuable comments that helped improve the manuscript. MES was supported by a postgraduate scholarship from the Institute for Land Water and Society at Charles Sturt University while undertaking this research project. GWL was supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship FT0990436.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environmental Sciences, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW, 2640, Australia

    Manu E. Saunders

  2. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW, 2640, Australia

    Manu E. Saunders & Gary W. Luck

  3. The Ecology Centre, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia

    Margaret M. Mayfield

Authors
  1. Manu E. Saunders
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gary W. Luck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Margaret M. Mayfield
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Manu E. Saunders.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 14 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Saunders, M.E., Luck, G.W. & Mayfield, M.M. Almond orchards with living ground cover host more wild insect pollinators. J Insect Conserv 17, 1011–1025 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-013-9584-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-013-9584-6

Keywords

  • Bees
  • Ecosystem services
  • Flower visitor
  • Mallee
  • Tree nut
  • Weeds