Abstract
The paper used time-series data and examined the effect of economic and social variables on the male and female self-employment rates in Spain. We also employed cointegration analysis (with and without) structural breaks. We thus find strong evidence that long run relationships exist among the variables. More precisely, we find that the unemployment rates and the ratio of self-employment to employees’ earnings have a positive effect on self-employment, whereas, economic development and divorce rates have a negative effect. Importantly, we find that the economic variables have equal or stronger long run impact on females than males, with both groups reacting to changes in family circumstances. Finally, we show that the short run family circumstances are better predictors of self-employment choices rather than economic factors, with self-employment being a means of adjustment to new personal circumstances and economic needs.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Such a result has been verified by researchers (Amato and Beattie 2011; Bumpass et al. 1991; Hansen 2005; Jalovaara 2003; Preston and McDonald 1979; Ross and Sawhill 1975) for both the US and European countries such as Finland and Norway. Amato et al. (2007) found that there were frequent thoughts of divorce associated with declining family incomes.
Based on our estimates during 2011–2014.
The data on divorce and self-employment to employee income ratio are not distinguished by gender, due to data limitations available to us.
For example, González-Val and Marcén (2012), examining 16 European countries, show that shocks such as divorce-law reforms may affect divorce rates permanently.
We found that total unemployment rate may have been integrated of order 2 suggesting that unemployment was highly persistent in Spain. However, the gender specific unemployment rates provided evidence that the series may have been integrated of order 1. For the purpose of this work, we continued our analysis treating UNEM(total)t as I(1).
The model allowed for potential endogeneity between the self-employment rate and unemployment (see discussion in Thurik et al. 2008) where increased self-employment rates may have reduced subsequent unemployment rates. Indeed, the unemployment rate variable was found to react to disequilibrium (with p-value < 0.01) suggesting that the assumption of weak exogeneity was valid or the other variables were treated as weakly exogenous. We also experimented by estimating a model that allowed for the divorce rate to be endogenous in the system since self-employment may have affected marital stability (Cameron et al. 1997). Our results remained generally robust to this specification.
The specification allows a linear time trend in the levels of the data.
In order to determine the order of the VAR we ran an unrestricted VAR of order 4 by separating the endogenous and exogenous variables and including an intercept. The log-likelihood ratio (LR) statistics test selected order p = 3 for the overall and gender specific self-employment models.
Following the suggestion by the referee, we have also estimated the model including the fertility variable in the specification. For example, self-employment can be viewed as a strategy to solve the conflict between work and family life for women. Hence, mothers may choose to be self-employed in order to have greater flexibility in working hours, allowing them to spend more time with their children (Beutell 2007; Bianchi 2000; Hyytinen and Ruskanen 2007). Our results showed no long run or short run effects of fertility rate on male self-employment. In contrast, for females we found that the fertility rate had a positive and statistically significant long run elasticity of 1.273 [x2(1) = 5.2766, p = .022]. However, the inclusion of this variable alters the relationship between the economic variables and self-employment, with the coefficient of GDP becoming statistically insignificant. We suspect that this is driven by a potentially strong relationship between fertility decision and growth prospects. Demographic data are better analyzed within panel data framework in which geographical variations and control for a wide range of other factors (for example, age of children, marital status, and presence of grandparents in the household) can be considered in the modelling specification. We therefore leave this important aspect for future research.
References
Acs, Z. J., Arenius, P., Hay, M., & Minniti, M. (2005). 2004 Global entrepreneurship monitor. London: London Business School and Babson College.
Alba-Ramirez, A. (1994). Self-employment in the midst of unemployment: The case of Spain and the United States. Applied Economics, 26(3), 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036849400000001.
Aldrich, H. E., & Cliff, J. E. (2003). The pervasive effects of family on entrepreneurship: toward a family embeddedness perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(5), 573–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0883-9026(03)00011-9.
Allen, I. E., Elan, N., Langowitz, N., & Dean, M. (2007). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Report on Women and Entrepreneurship. Babson College, MA
Amarapurkar, S. S., & Danes, S. M. (2005). Farm business-owning couples: Interrelationships among business tensions, relationship conflict quality, and spousal satisfaction. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 26(3), 419–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-005-5905-6.
Amato, P. R., Booth, A., Johnson, D. R., & Rogers, S. J. (2007). Alone together: How marriage in America is changing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674020184.
Amato, P. R., & Beattie, B. (2011). Does the unemployment rate affect the divorce rate? An analysis of state data 1960–2005. Social Science Research, 40(3), 705–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.12.012.
Arenius, P., & Minniti, M. (2005). Perceptual variables and nascent entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-1984-x.
Audretsch, D., Thurik, R., Verheul, I., & Wennekers, S. (2002). Entrepreneurship: Determinants and policy in a European-US comparison. Economics of Science, Technology and Innovation. https://doi.org/10.1007/b109395.
Bartolini, L., Gropas, R., & Triandafyllidou, A. (2016). Drivers of highly skilled mobility from Southern Europe: Escaping the crisis and emancipating oneself. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(4), 652–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2016.1249048.
Baumol, W. J., & Strom, R. J. (2007). Entrepreneurship and economic growth. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 1(3–4), 233–237. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.26.
Beutell, N. J. (2007). Self-employment, work-family conflict and work-family synergy: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 20(4), 325–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2007.10593403.
Bianchi, S. M. (2000). Maternal employment and time with children: Dramatic change or surprising continuity? Demography, 37(4), 401. https://doi.org/10.2307/2648068.
Blanchflower, D. G., & Levin, A. T. (2015). Labor market slack and monetary policy. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER Working Paper 21094). https://doi.org/10.3386/w21094.
Blanchflower, D. G., & Oswald, A. J. (1998). What makes an entrepreneur? Journal of Labor Economics, 16(1), 26–60. https://doi.org/10.1086/209881.
Blau, D. M. (1985). Self-employment and self-selection in developing country labor markets. Southern Economic Journal, 52(2), 351. https://doi.org/10.2307/1059621.
Boden, R. J. (1996). Gender and self-employment selection: An empirical assessment. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 25(6), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1053-5357(96)90046-3.
Boden, R. J. (1999). Flexible working hours, family responsibilities, and female self-employment: Gender differences in self-employment selection. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 58(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1536-7150.1999.tb03285.x.
Bruce, D. (1999). Do husbands matter? Married women entering self-employment. Small Business Economics, 13(4), 317–329. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008179214572.
Budig, M. J. (2006). Intersections on the road to self-employment: gender, family and occupational class. Social Forces, 84(4), 2223–2239. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2006.0082.
Bumpass, L. L., Martin, T. C., & Sweet, J. A. (1991). The impact of family background and early marital factors on marital disruption. Journal of Family Issues, 12(1), 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251391012001003.
Byrnes, J. P., Miller, D. C., & Schafer, W. D. (1999). Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 125(3), 367–383. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.125.3.367.
Cameron, A., Massey, C., & Tweed, D. (1997). New Zealand small business: A review. Chartered Accountants Journal of New Zealand, 76(9), 4–12.
Caputo, R. K., & Dolinsky, A. (1998). Women’s choice to pursue self-employment: The role of financial and human capital of household members. Journal of Small Business Management, 36(3), 8–17.
Carr, D. (1996). Two paths to self-employment? Women’s and men’s self-employment in the United States. Work and Occupations, 23(1), 26–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888496023001003.
Carrasco, R. (1999). Transitions to and from self-employment in Spain: An empirical analysis. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 61(3), 315–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0084.00132.
Casson, M., & Wadeson, N. (2007). The discovery of opportunities: Extending the economic theory of the entrepreneur. Small Business Economics, 28(4), 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-006-9037-7.
Catron, P. (2014). Prosperity-pull or recession-push? Mexican immigrant self-employment across the business cycle. California Center for Population Research (Online Working Paper Series) University of California Los Angeles. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2894473.
Clark, K., & Drinkwater, S. (2000). Pushed out or pulled in? Self-employment among ethnic minorities in England and Wales. Labour Economics, 7(5), 603–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0927-5371(00)00015-4.
Congregado, E., Golpe, A. A., & Carmona, M. (2010). Is it a good policy to promote self-employment for job creation? Evidence from Spain. Journal of Policy Modeling, 32(6), 828–842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2010.09.001.
Congregado, E., Golpe, A. A., & Parker, S. C. (2012). The dynamics of entrepreneurship: hysteresis, business cycles and government policy. Empirical Economics, 43, 1239–1261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-011-0516-6.
Cowling, M., & Mitchell, P. (1997). The evolution of U.K. self-employment: A study of government policy and the role of the macroeconomy. The Manchester School, 65(4), 427–442. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9957.00073.
Cowling, M., Taylor, M., & Mitchell, P. (2004). Job creators. The Manchester School, 72(5), 601–617. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9957.2004.00411.x.
D’Arcy, C., & Gardiner, K. (2014). Just the job—or a working compromise? The changing nature of self-employment in the UK. London: Resolution Foundation.
Dawson, C. J., Henley, A., & Latreille, P. L. (2009). Why do individuals choose self-employment? (IZA Discussion Paper 3974). Retrieved from http://repec.iza.org/dp3974.pdf.
DeMartino, R., & Barbato, R. (2003). Differences between women and men MBA entrepreneurs: Exploring family flexibility and wealth creation as career motivators. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(6), 815–832. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0883-9026(03)00003-x.
Duncan, G. J., & Hoffman, S. D. (1985). A reconsideration of the economic consequences of marital dissolution. Demography, 22(4), 485. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061584.
Edin, K., & Kissane, R. J. (2010). Poverty and the American family: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 460–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00713.x.
Entorf, H. (1997). Random walks with drifts: Nonsense regression and spurious fixed-effect estimation. Journal of Econometrics, 80(2), 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-4076(97)00041-9.
Eurostat. (2017). Unemployment in the EU regions in 2016. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/8008016/1-27042017-AP-EN.pdf/6617d81f-e62f-4063-9393-a74703badad4.
GEM (2003). GEM global report. Babson Park: Babson College.
Georgellis, Y., & Wall, H. J. (2005). Gender differences in self-employment. International Review of Applied Economics, 19(3), 321–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/02692170500119854.
Giousmpasoglou, C., & Koniordos, S. K. (2017). Brain drain in higher education in Europe: Current trends and future perspectives. In C. Giousmpasoglou, E. Marinakou & V. Paliktzoglou, (Eds.), Brain drain in higher education: The case of the Southern European countries and Ireland. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Retrieved from http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/28702/1/Chapter.ID_47546_6x9-1-edited.pdf.
Glocker, D., & Steiner, V. (2007). Self-employment: A way to end unemployment? Empirical evidence from German Pseudo-Panel data. (IZA Discussion Paper No. 2561). Retrieved from https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/2561/self-employment-a-way-to-end-unemployment-empirical-evidence-from-german-pseudo-panel-data.
González, L., & Viitanen, T. K. (2009). The effect of divorce laws on divorce rates in Europe. European Economic Review, 53(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2008.05.005.
González Menéndez, M. C., & Cueto, B. (2015). Business start-ups and youth self-employment in Spain: A policy literature review. (STYLE Working Papers, STYLE-WP7.1/ES). CROME, University of Brighton, Brighton. Retrieved from http://www.style-research.eu/publications/working-papers.
González-Val, R., & Marcén, M. (2012). Breaks in the breaks: An analysis of divorce rates in Europe. International Review of Law and Economics, 32(2), 242–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irle.2012.01.005.
González-Val, R., & Marcén, M. (2017). Divorce and the business cycle: A cross-country analysis. Review of Economics of the Household, 15(3), 879–904. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-016-9329-x.
Goodman, A., & Greaves, E. (2010). Cohabitation, marriage and relationship stability. IFS Briefing Note. BN107. https://doi.org/10.1920/bn.ifs.2010.00107.
Greene, F. J., Han, L., & Marlow, S. (2011). Like mother, like daughter? Analyzing maternal influences upon womens entrepreneurial propensity. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(4), 687–711. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00484.x.
Gregory, A. W., & Hansen, B. E. (1996a). Residual-based tests for cointegration in models with regime shifts. Journal of Econometrics, 70(1), 99–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(69)41685-7.
Gregory, A. W., & Hansen, B. E. (1996b). Practitioners corner: Tests for cointegration in models with regime and trend shifts. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 58(3), 555–560. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1996.mp58003008.x.
Greiff, J. V. (2009). Displacement and self-employment entry. Labour Economics, 16(5), 556–565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2009.02.005.
Hamilton, R. T. (1989). Unemployment and business formation rates: Reconciling time-series and cross-section evidence. Environment and Planning A, 21(2), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1068/a210249.
Hansen, K. T. (2005). Getting stuck in the compound: Some odds against social adulthood in Lusaka, Zambia. Africa Today, 51(4), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1353/at.2005.0039.
Hardie, J. H., & Lucas, A. (2010). Economic factors and relationship quality among young couples: Comparing cohabitation and marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(5), 1141–1154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00755.x.
Hartog, J., Ferrer-I-Carbonell, A., & Jonker, N. (2002). Linking measured risk aversion to individual characteristics. Kyklos, 55(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6435.00175.
Hatfield, I. (2015), Self-employment in Europe. London: Institute for Public Policy Research. Retrieved from http://www.ippr.org/publications/self-employment-in-europe.
Hellerstein, J. K., Morrill, M. S., & Zou, B. (2013). Business cycles and divorce: Evidence from microdata. Economics Letters, 118(1), 68–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.09.014.
Hughes, K. D. (2006). Exploring motivation and success among Canadian women entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 19(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2006.10593362.
Hundley, G. (2001). Male/female earnings differences in self-employment: The effects of marriage, children, and the household division of labor. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 54(1), 95–104. https://doi.org/10.2307/2696034.
Hyytinen, A., & Ruuskanen, O. (2007). Time use of the self-employed. Kyklos, 60(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.2007.00361.x.
Jalovaara, M. (2003). The joint effects of marriage partners socioeconomic positions on the risk of divorce. Demography, 40(1), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.2307/3180812.
Jiménez-Rubio, D., Garoupa, N., & Rosales, V. (2016). Explaining divorce rate determinants: new evidence from Spain. Applied Economics Letters, 23(7), 461–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2015.1064070.
Keene, J. R., & Reynolds, J. R. (2005). The job costs of family demands. Journal of Family Issues, 26(3), 275–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x04270219.
Kepler, E., & Shane, S. (2007). Are male and female entrepreneurs really that different? US Small Business Administration Office of Advocacy (Working Paper No.309). Retrieved from https://www.sba.gov/advocacy/archived-economic-research-working-papers.
Kirkwood, J., & Tootell, B. (2008). Is entrepreneurship the answer to achieving work–family balance? Journal of Management & Organization, 14(03), 285–302. https://doi.org/10.1017/s183336720000328x.
Le, A. T. (2000). The determinants of immigrant self-employment in Australia. International Migration Review, 34(1), 183–214. https://doi.org/10.2307/2676017.
Liker, J. K., & Elder, G. H. (1983). Economic hardship and marital relations in the 1930s. American Sociological Review, 48(3), 343–359. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095227.
Marlow, S., & McAdam, M. (2013). Gender and entrepreneurship: advancing debate and challenging myths: Exploring the mystery of the under-performing female entrepreneur. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavavior & Research, 19(1), 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551311299288.
Martínez-Granado, M. (2002). Self-employment and labour market transitions: A multiple state model. (CEPR Discussion Paper No. 3661). Retrieved from https://cepr.org/active/publications/discussion_papers/dp.php?dpno=3661.
Millán, A., Millán, J. M., Román, C., & Stel, A. V. (2013). How does employment protection legislation influence hiring and firing decisions by the smallest firms? Economics Letters, 121(3), 444–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.09.021.
Minniti, M., Arenius, P., & Langowitz, N. (2005). 2004 global entrepreneurship monitor special topic report: Women and entrepreneurship. Babson Park, MA: Center for Women’s Leadership at Babson College.
OECD. (2016). Spain. Education at a glance 2016: OECD indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2016-81-en.
Parker, S. C. (1996). A time series model of self-employment under uncertainty. Economica, 63(251), 459–475. https://doi.org/10.2307/2555017.
Parker, S. C. (2008). Entrepreneurship among married couples in the United States: A simultaneous probit approach. Labour Economics, 15(3), 459–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2007.03.004.
Parker, S. C., & Robson, M. T. (2004). Explaining international variations in self-employment: Evidence from a panel of OECD countries. Southern Economic Journal, 71(2), 287–301. https://doi.org/10.2307/4135292.
Patrick, C., Stephens, H., & Weinstein, A. (2016). Where are all the self-employed women? Push and pull factors influencing female labor market decisions. Small Business Economics, 46(3), 365–390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-015-9697-2.
Paul, S., & Sarma, V. (2008). Economic crisis and female entrepreneurship: Evidence from countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. (CREDIT Research Paper No. 13/08). Retrieved from https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/credit/documents/papers/crp-13-08.pdf.
Perron, P. (1989). The great crash, the oil price shock, and the unit root hypothesis. Econometrica, 57(6), 1361–1401. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913712.
Pesaran, M. H., & Pesaran, B. (1997). Working with Microfit 4.0: Interactive econometric analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Phillips, P. C., & Ouliaris, S. (1990). Asymptotic properties of residual based tests for cointegration. Econometrica, 58(1), 165–193. https://doi.org/10.2307/2938339.
Polkovnichenko, V. (2005). Household portfolio diversification: A case for rank dependent preferences. The Review of Financial Studies, 18(4), 1467–1502. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.293831.
Preston, S. H., & Mcdonald, J. (1979). The incidence of divorce within cohorts of American marriages contracted since the civil war. Demography, 16(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061075.
Rees, H., & Shah, A. (1986). An empirical analysis of self-employment in the U.K. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 1(1), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.3950010107.
Renzulli, L. A., Aldrich, H., & Moody, J. (2000). Family matters: Gender, networks, and entrepreneurial outcomes. Social Forces, 79(2), 523–546. https://doi.org/10.2307/2675508.
Reynolds, P. D., Camp, S. M., Bygrave, W. D., Autio, E., & Hay, M. (2002). 2001 global entrepreneurship monitor: Executive report. Londan MA: Babson College. Retrieved from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan002481.pdf.
Ross, H., & Sawhill, I. (1975). Time of transition: The growth of families headed by women. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/22.1.74.
Saridakis, G., Marlow, S., & Storey, D. J. (2014). Do different factors explain male and female self-employment rates? Journal of Business Venturing, 29(3), 345–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.04.004.
Schubert, R., Brown, M., Gysler, M., & Brachinger, H. W. (1999). Financial decision-making: Are women really more risk averse? American Economic Review, 89(2), 381–385. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.89.2.381.
Seccombe, K. (2000). Families in poverty in the 1990s: Trends, causes, consequences, and lessons learned. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1094–1113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01094.x.
Shane, S. (1996). Explaining variation in rates of entrepreneurship in the United States: 1899–1988. Journal of Management, 22(5), 747–781. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0149-2063(96)90021-5.
Shapiro, A., & Cooney, T. M. (2007). Divorce and intergenerational relations across the life course. Advances in Life Course Research, 12, 191–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1040-2608(07)12007-4.
Sheehan, M., & Mc Namara, A. (2015). Business start-ups & youth self-employment: A policy literature review synthesis report. (STYLE Working Papers, WP7.1.). CROME, University of Brighton, Brighton. Retrieved from http://www.style-research.eu/publications/working-papers.
Stewart, C. C., & Danes, S. M. (2001). Inclusion and control in resort family businesses: A developmental approach to conflict. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 22(3), 293–320. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1016604023763.
Storey, D. J. (1991). The birth of new firms? Does unemployment matter? A review of the evidence. Small Business Economics, 3(3), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00400022.
Taniguchi, H. (2002). Determinants of women’s entry into self-employment. Social Science Quarterly, 83(3), 875–893. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.00119.
Taylor, M. P. (1996). Earnings, independence or unemployment: Why become self-employed? Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 58(2), 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1996.mp58002003.x.
Taylor, S. R., & Newcomer, J. D. (2005). Characteristics of women small business owners. International Handbook of Women and Small Business Entrepreneurship. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781845425586.00009.
Terjesen, S., & Amorós, J. E. (2010). Female entrepreneurship in Latin America and the Caribbean: Characteristics, drivers and relationship to economic development. The European Journal of Development Research, 22(3), 313–330. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.13.
Thurik, A. R., Carree, M. A., Stel, A. V., & Audretsch, D. B. (2008). Does self-employment reduce unemployment? Journal of Business Venturing, 23(6), 673–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2008.01.007.
Verbakel, E., & Graaf, P. M. (2009). Partner effects on labour market participation and job level: opposing mechanisms. Work, Employment and Society, 23(4), 635–654. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017009344909.
Verheul, I., Thurik, R., Grilo, I., & Zwan, P. V. (2012). Explaining preferences and actual involvement in self-employment: Gender and the entrepreneurial personality. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2), 325–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2011.02.009.
Wang, W., & Parker, K. (2014). Record share of Americans have never married as values, economics and gender patterns change. Pew research social and demographic trends. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2014/09/24/record-share-of-americans-have-never-married/.
Westhead, P., & Cowling, M. (1995). Employment change in independent owner-managed high-technology firms in Great Britain. Small Business Economics, 7(2), 111–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01108686.
White, L., & Rogers, S. J. (2000). Economic circumstances and family outcomes: A review of the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1035–1051. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01035.x.
Wong, P. K., Ho, Y. P., & Autio, E. (2005). Entrepreneurship, innovation and economic growth: evidence from GEM data. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 335–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-2000-1.
World Bank. (2016). Doing business report. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0667-4 Retrieved from http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/WBG/DoingBusiness/Documents/Annual-Reports/English/DB16-Full-Report.pdf.
Yao, R., Hanna, S. D., & Lindamood, S. (2004). Changes in financial risk tolerance, 1983–2001. Financial Services Review, 13(4), 249–266. https://search.proquest.com/docview/212010921?accountid=45039.
Zivot, E., & Andrews, D. W. (1992). Further evidence on the great crash, the oil-price shock, and the unit-root hypothesis. Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 10(3), 251–270. https://doi.org/10.2307/1391541.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Research Involving Human and Animal Participants
This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Saridakis, G., Mohammed, AM., García-Iglesias, J.M. et al. Economy and Divorces: Their Impact Over Time on the Self-Employment Rates in Spain. J Fam Econ Iss 39, 422–435 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-018-9575-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-018-9575-6