Abstract
Using a community-based, racially/ethnically diverse sample of 521 adolescents, this longitudinal study examined the predictive reciprocal associations between academic achievement and depressive symptoms across four waves of data. Multiple-group cross-lagged panel models were used to test possible mediating and moderating effects of the parent-child relationship. The results showed that depressive symptoms predicted lower GPA scores across sixth to ninth grades. Similarly, poor GPA scores also predicted depressive symptoms, but only for girls. Despite girls scoring higher overall GPA scores than boys, they reported higher levels of depressive symptoms from seventh grade onward. Depressive symptoms were also found to negatively impact the parent-child relationship which in turn, exacerbated depressive symptoms, over and above previous levels of symptoms. However, there was no evidence that the parent-child relationship mediated or moderated the predictive association between academic achievement and depression. Overall, the current research indicates that poor academic achievement confers an increased risk of depression for girls, suggesting differential developmental significance of academic achievement for boys and girls. As positive parent-child relationship may not effectively mitigate academic stress experienced by adolescents, schools could play an important role in helping adolescents cope with academic demands while supporting their development of academic competence.
Highlights
-
There is a reciprocal relationship between academic achievement and depression.
-
Poor academic achievement tends to predict depressive symptoms in girls but not in boys.
-
Poor parent-child relationship increases the risk of depressive symptoms in adolescents.
-
Parents may not mitigate the effects of poor academic achievement during adolescence.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from Minglee Yong, with permission from the Ann Vander Stoep and Elizabeth McCauley, upon reasonable request.
References
Abaied, J. L., & Rudolph, K. D. (2014). Family relationships, emotional processes, and adolescent depression. In C. S. Richards & M. W. O’Hara (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of depression and comorbidity. (pp. 460–475). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199797004.001.0001.
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.
Affuso, G., Bacchini, D., & Miranda, M. C. (2017). The contribution of school-related parental monitoring, self-determination, and self-efficacy to academic achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 110(5), 565–574. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2016.1149795.
Allen, J. P., Insabella, G., Porter, M. R., Smith, F. D., Land, D., & Phillips, N. (2006). A social-interactional model of the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.1.55.
Altermatt, E. R., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2005). The implications of having high-achieving versus low-achieving friends: a longitudinal analysis. Social Development, 14(1), 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2005.00291.x.
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Messer, S. C., Pickles, A., Winder, F., & Silver, D. (1995). The development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5(4), 237–249.
Babore, A., Trumello, C., Candelori, C., Paciello, M., & Cerniglia, L. (2016). Depressive symptoms, self-esteem and perceived parent–child relationship in early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00982.
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588–606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588.
Bettis, P., Ferry, N. C., & Roe, M. (2016). Lord of the guys: alpha girls and the post-feminist landscape of American education. Gender Issues, 33(2), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-016-9153-x.
Birchwood, J., & Daley, D. (2012). Brief report: The impact of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms on academic performance in an adolescent community sample. Journal of Adolescence, 35(1), 225–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.08.011.
Bolognini, M., Plancherel, B., Bettschart, W., & Halfon, O. (1996). Self-esteem and mental health in early adolescence: development and gender differences. Journal of Adolescence, 19(3), 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1996.0022.
Branje, S. J. T., Hale, W. W. III, Frijns, T., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2010). Longitudinal associations between perceived parent-child relationship quality and depressive symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(6), 751–763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9401-6.
Brković, I., Keresteš, G., & Levpušček, M. P. (2014). Trajectories of change and relationship between parent-adolescent school-related conflict and academic achievement in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(6), 792–815. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613503213.
Brookhart, S. M., Walsh, J. M., & Zientarski, W. A. (2006). The dynamics of motivation and effort for classroom assessments in middle school science and social studies. Applied Measurement in Education, 19(2), 151–184. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324818ame1902_5.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21(2), 230–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005.
Chartier, M., Stoep, A. V., McCauley, E., Herting, J. R., Tracy, M., & Lymp, J. (2008). Passive versus active parental permission: implications for the ability of school-based depression screening to reach youth at risk. The Journal of school health, 78(3), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2007.00278.x.
Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Li, B. S. (1995). Depressed mood in Chinese children: relations with school performance and family environment. Journal of Consulting And Clinical Psychology, 63(6), 938–947. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.63.6.938.
Clark, K. E., & Ladd, G. W. (2000). Connectedness and autonomy support in parent–child relationships: Links to children’s socioemotional orientation and peer relationships. Developmental Psychology, 36(4), 485–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.4.485.
Cole, D. A., & Martin, J. M. (1997). A competency-based model of child depression: a longitudinal study of peer, parent, teacher, and self-evaluations. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 505–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01537.x.
Cole, D. A., Martin, J. M., Peeke, L. A., Seroczynski, A. D., & Fier, J. (1999). Children’s over- and underestimation of academic competence: a longitudinal study of gender differences, depression, and anxiety. Child Development, 70(2), 459–473. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00033.
Cole, D. A., Martin, J. M., Powers, B., & Truglio, R. (1996). Modeling causal relations between academic and social competence and depression: a multitrait-multimethod longitudinal study of children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(2), 258–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.258.
DeLay, D., Hafen, C. A., Cunha, J. M., Weber, L. N. D., & Laursen, B. (2013). Perceptions of parental support buffer against depression for Brazilian youth with interpersonal difficulties. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 37(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025412454031.
Diseth, Å., Danielsen, A. G., & Samdal, O. (2012). A path analysis of basic need support, self-efficacy, achievement goals, life satisfaction and academic achievement level among secondary school students. Educational Psychology, 32(3), 335–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012.657159.
Eccles, J. S., Jacobs, J. E., & Harold, R. D. (1990). Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents’ socialization of gender differences. Journal of Social Issues, 46(2), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb01929.x.
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2001). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37(3), 404–417. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.37.3.404.
Gentrup, S., & Rjosk, C. (2018). Pygmalion and the gender gap: do teacher expectations contribute to differences in achievement between boys and girls at the beginning of schooling. Educational Research & Evaluation, 24(3-5), 295–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2018.1550840.
Guo, J., Ren, X., Wang, X., Qu, Z., Zhou, Q., Ran, C., Wang, X., & Hu, J. (2015). Depression among migrant and left-behind children in China in relation to the quality of parent-child and teacher-child relationships. PLoS One, 10(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145606.
Hammen, C. L., Rudolph, K. D., & Abaied, J. L. (2014). Child and adolescent depression. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology, 3rd ed. (pp. 225–263). The Guilford Press.
Hankin, B. L., Wetter, E., & Cheely, C. (2008). Sex differences in child and adolescent depression: A developmental psychopathological approach. In Abela, J. R. Z. & Hankin, B. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 377–414). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1086/597634.
Hartley, B. L., & Sutton, R. M. (2013). A stereotype threat account of boys’ academic underachievement. Child Development, 84(5), 1716–1733. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12079.
Herman, K. C., Lambert, S. F., Ialongo, N. S., & Ostrander, R. (2007). Academic pathways between attention problems and depressive symptoms among urban African American children. Journal Of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(2), 265–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9083-2.
Hishinuma, E. S., McArdle, J. T., & Chang, J. Y. (2012). Potential causal relationship between depressive symptoms and academic achievement in the hawaiian high schools health survey using contemporary longitudinal latent variable change models. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1327–1342. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026978.
Hu, L.-t., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Huang, C. (2015). Academic achievement and subsequent depression: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(2), 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9855-6.
Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.139.
Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 9(2), 131–155. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0902_3.
Kendler, K. S. (1996). Parenting: a genetic-epidemiologic perspective. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.1.11.
Kenney-Benson, G. A., Pomerantz, E. M., Ryan, A. M., & Patrick, H. (2006). Sex differences in math performance: The role of children’s approach to schoolwork. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.11.
Kimball, M. M. (1989). A new perspective on women’s math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 105(2), 198–214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.198.
Lehtinena, H., Räikkönena, K., Heinonena, K., Raitakari, O. T., & Keltikangas-Järvinena, L. (2006). School Performance in Childhood and Adolescence as a Predictor of Depressive Symptoms in Adulthood. School Psychology International, 27(3), 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034306067280.
Liu, J., Bullock, A., Coplan, R. J., Chen, X., Li, D., & Zhou, Y. (2018). Developmental cascade models linking peer victimization, depression, and academic achievement in Chinese children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 36(1), 47–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12212.
Loughlin-Presnal, J., & Bierman, K. L. (2017). How do parent expectations promote child academic achievement in early elementary school? A test of three mediators. Developmental Psychology, 53(9), 1694–1708. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000369.
Maughan, B., Rowe, R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2003). Reading problems and depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(2), 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022534527021.
McCarty, C. A., Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Lengua, L. J., & McCauley, E. (2008). Adolescent school failure predicts later depression among girls. The Journal Of Adolescent Health: Official Publication Of The Society For Adolescent Medicine, 43(2), 180–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.01.023.
McCarty, C. A., Violette, H. D., Duong, M. T., Cruz, R. A., & McCauley, E. (2013). A randomized trial of the positive thoughts and action program for depression among early adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42(4), 554–563. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.782817.
McGrath, E. P., & Repetti, R. L. (2000). Mothers’ and fathers’ attitudes toward their children’s academic performance and children’s perceptions of their academic competence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(6), 713–723. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026460007421.
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.002.
Merikangas, K. R., He, J.-p., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., Benjet, C., Georgiades, K., & Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017.
Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., Netter, S., & Keehn, D. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 16(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9066-5.
Miller, A. K., & Markman, K. D. (2007). Depression, regulatory focus, and motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(3), 427–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.006.
Miranda, M., Affuso, G., Esposito, C., & Bacchini, D. (2016). Parental acceptance-rejection and adolescent maladjustment: mothers’ and fathers’ combined roles. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 25(4), 1352–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0305-5.
Mohr, S., Preisig, M., Fenton, B. T., & Ferrero, F. (1999). Validation of the French version of the Parental Bonding Instrument in adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 26(6), 1065–1074. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00210-4.
Mullola, S., Ravaja, N., Lipsanen, J., Alatupa, S., Hintsanen, M., Jokela, M., & Keltikangas‐Järvinen, L. (2012). Gender differences in teachers’ perceptions of students’ temperament, educational competence, and teachability. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(2), 185–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.2010.02017.x.
Murphy, E., Brewin, C., & Silka, L. (1997). The assessment of parenting using the Parental Bonding Instrument: Two or three factors. Psychological Medicine, 27(2), 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291796004606.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998). Mplus Statistical Analysis with Latent Variables: User’s Guide. Eighth Edition ed. Los Angeles, CA: Muthen & Muthen. 2017.
Negriff, S., & Susman, E. J. (2011). Pubertal timing, depression, and externalizing problems: a framework, review, and examination of gender differences. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(3), 717–746. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00708.x.
Palmu, I. R., Närhi, V. M., & Savolainen, H. K. (2018). Externalizing behaviour and academic performance— The cross-lagged relationship during school transition. Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties, 23(2), 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2017.1376968.
Parent, J., Forehand, R., Dunbar, J., Watson, K., Reising, M., Seehuus, M., & Compas, B. (2014). Parent and adolescent reports of parenting when a parent has a history of depression: associations with observations of parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(2), 173–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9777-1.
Parker, G. (1990). The Parental Bonding Instrument: A decade of research. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiolog, 25(6), 281–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00782881.
Parker, G., Tupling, H., & Brown, L. B. (1979). A parental bonding instrument. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1979.tb02487.x.
Pelkonen, M., Marttunen, M., & Aro, H. (2003). Risk for depression: a 6-year follow-up of Finnish adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 77(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00098-8.
Pesu, L., Aunola, K., Viljaranta, J., Hirvonen, R., & Kiuru, N. (2018). The role of mothers’ beliefs in students’ self-concept of ability development. Learning and Individual Differences, 65, 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.05.013.
Pokropek, A., Borgonovi, F., & Jakubowski, M. (2015). Socio-economic disparities in academic achievement: A comparative analysis of mechanisms and pathways. Learning and Individual Differences, 42, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.07.011.
Pomerantz, E. M., Saxon, J. L., & Altermatt, E. R. (2002). Making the grade but feeling distressed: gender differences in academic performance and internal distress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 396–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.2.396.
Quiroga, C. V., Janosz, M., Bisset, S., & Morin, A. J. S. (2013). Early adolescent depression symptoms and school dropout: mediating processes involving self-reported academic competence and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 552–560. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031524.
Reinherz, H. Z., Giaconia, R. M., Hauf, A. M., Wasserman, M. S., & Silverman, A. B. (1999). Major depression in the transition to adulthood: risks and impairments. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(3), 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.108.3.500.
Robertson, J. C. (2013). Self-concept, school satisfaction, and other selected correlates of subjective well-being for advanced high school learners enrolled in two challenging academic settings. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 36(4), 461–486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162353213506068.
Robinson, K., & Harris, A. L. (2013). Racial and social class differences in how parents respond to inadequate achievement: consequences for children’s future achievement. Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell), 94(5), 1346–1371. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12007.
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98.
Rudolph, K. D. (2002). Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of The Society for Adolescent Medicine, 30(4 Suppl), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1054-139x(01)00383-4.
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66, 507–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02296192.
Schleider, J. L., & Weisz, J. R. (2017). Family process and youth internalizing problems: A triadic model of etiology and intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 29(1), 273–301. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941600016X.
Serbin, L. A., Stack, D. M., & Kingdon, D. (2013). Academic success across the transition from primary to secondary schooling among lower-income adolescents: Understanding the effects of family resources and gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(9), 1331–1347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9987-4.
Shahar, G., Henrich, C. C., Winokur, A., Blatt, S. J., Kuperminc, G. P., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2006). Self-criticism and depressive symptomatology interact to predict middle school academic achievement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(1), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20210.
Shortt, A. L., Barrett, P. M., & Fox, T. L. (2001). Evaluating the FRIENDS Program: A cognitive-behavioral group treatment for anxious children and their parents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 30(4), 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3004_09.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613.
Stipek, D. J., & Hoffman, J. M. (1980). Development of Children’s Performance-related Judgments. Child Development, 51(3), 912–914. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129485.
Thabrew, H., Stasiak, K., Bavin, L., Frampton, C., & Merry, S. (2018). Validation of the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ) and Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (SMFQ) in New Zealand help‐seeking adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 27(3), 1 https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1610.
Vander Stoep, A., Adrian, M. C., Rhew, I. C., McCauley, E., Herting, J. R., & Kraemer, H. C. (2012). Identifying comorbid depression and disruptive behavior disorders: Comparison of two approaches used in adolescent studies. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(7), 873–881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.03.022.
Verboom, C. E., Sijtsema, J. J., Verhulst, F. C., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Ormel, J. (2014). Longitudinal associations between depressive problems, academic performance, and social functioning in adolescent boys and girls. Developmental Psychology, 50(1), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032547.
Veronneau, M. H., & Dishion, T. J. (2011). Middle school friendships and academic achievement in early adolescence: a longitudinal analysis. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 31(1), 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431610384485.
Voyer, D., & Voyer, S. D. (2014). Gender differences in scholastic achievement: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull, 140(4), 1174–1204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036620.
Wagner, S., Müller, C., Helmreich, I., Huss, M., & Tadić, A. (2015). A meta-analysis of cognitive functions in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0559-2.
West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56–75). Sage Publications, Inc.
Weidman, A. C., Augustine, A. A., Murayama, K., & Elliot, A. J. (2015). Internalizing symptomatology and academic achievement: Bi-directional prospective relations in adolescence. Journal of Research in Personality, 58, 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.07.005.
Xu, M. K., Morin, A., Marsh, H. W., Richards, M., & Jones, P. B. (2018). Psychometric Validation of the Parental Bonding Instrument in a U.K. Population-Based Sample: Role of Gender and Association With Mental Health in Mid-Late Life. Assessment, 25(6), 716–728. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191116660813.
Yong, M., Fleming, C. B., McCarty, C. A., & Catalano, R. F. (2014). Mediators of the associations between externalizing behaviors and internalizing symptoms in late childhood and early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(7), 967–1000. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613516827.
Young, J. F., Benas, J. S., Schueler, C. M., Gallop, R., Gillham, J. E., & Mufson, L. (2016). A randomized depression prevention trial comparing interpersonal psychotherapy—Adolescent skills training to group counseling in schools. Prevention Science, 17(3), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-015-0620-5.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Crick, N. R., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Woods, K. E. (2006). The origins and development of psychopathology in females and males. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol 1: Theory and method (2nd ed.) (pp. 76–138). Hoboken, NJ US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Zhao, X., Lynch, Jr, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257.
Funding
A.V.S. and E.M. have received research grants from the National Institute of Mental Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse as principal investigators (R01 MH63711 and R01 MH079402) of the Developmental Pathways Project.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization: Minglee Yong and Carolyn A. McCarty; Methodology: Minglee Yong, Carolyn A. McCarty, and Ann Vander Stoep; Formal analysis and investigation: Minglee Yong; Writing - original draft preparation: Minglee Yong; Writing - review and editing: Carolyn A. McCarty, Ann Vander Stoep, and Elizabeth A. McCauley; Funding acquisition: Ann Vander Stoep and Elizabeth A. McCauley; Resources: Ann Vander Stoep and Elizabeth A. McCauley.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethics Approval
The Developmental Pathways Project was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Washington Human Subjects Division. The procedures used in the project adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants in the study, including students and their parents/guardians.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Yong, M., McCarty, C.A., Vander Stoep, A. et al. Gender Differences in the Effects of Academic Achievement on Depressive Symptoms During Adolescence. J Child Fam Stud 31, 3326–3341 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02414-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02414-x