Abstract
This study was designed to examine the effectiveness of an evidence-based parenting program—Triple P Positive Parenting Program—in shelter settings for families experiencing homelessness. The intervention has not previously been evaluated in a shelter setting, where there is a critical need for evidence-based parenting programs. Using a within-group pre- and post-intervention with 3-month follow-up design, 39 mothers residing in a shelter with a child ages 2–6 years participated. Results of this preliminary study showed positive effects of Triple P Discussion Groups. There were significant improvements in mother-reported parenting practices and child behavior across time, but no change in child maltreatment risk as measured by the Brief Child Abuse Potential Inventory. Mothers rated satisfaction with the program high immediately after the group and again three weeks later. Results showed Triple P Discussion Groups are acceptable and have some positive effects for this vulnerable population in need of parenting support. We discuss implications of findings, limitations of the study (including a 33% attrition rate), and recommendations for further study.
Highlights
-
Evaluated Triple P Discussion Groups delivered in shelters for homeless families.
-
Parenting improved; child problem behaviors reduced; no effects on abuse risk.
-
Mothers were highly satisfied with all aspects of the intervention.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abate, A., Marek, R., Venta, A., Taylor, L., & Velez, L. (2020). The effectiveness of a home-based delivery of Triple P in high-risk families in rural areas. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29, 997–1007. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01684-2.
Arnold, D. S., O’Leary, S. G., Wolff, L. S., & Acker, M. M. (1993). The Parenting Scale: a measure of dysfunctional parenting in discipline situations. Psychological Assessment, 5, 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.5.2.137.
Bassuk, E. L., Richard, M. K., & Tsertsvadze, A. (2015). The prevalence of mental illness in homeless children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.11.008.
Chung, S., Leung, C., & Sanders, M. (2015). Triple P—Positive Parenting Program: the effectiveness of group Triple P and brief parent discussion group in school settings in Hong Kong. Journal of Children’s Services, 10, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCS-08-2014-0039.
Costello, A. H., Moreland, A. D., Jobe-Shields, L., Hanson, R. F., & Dumas, J. E. (2015). Change in child abuse potential as a predictor of post-assessment child disruptive behaviors after participation in PACE. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 2989–2998. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0102-6.
Cutuli, J. J., & Herbers, J. E. (2014). Promoting resilience for children who experience family homelessness: opportunities to encourage developmental competence. Cityscape, 16(1), 113–139. https://proxying.lib.ncsu.edu/index.php/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.prox.lib.ncsu.edu/docview/1517635569?accountid=12725
Dawe, S., Talpin, S., & Mattick, R. P. (2017). Psychometric investigation of the Brief Child Abuse Potential Inventory in mothers on opioid substitution therapy. Journal of Family Violence, 32, 341–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9821-3.
Dittman, C. K., Burke, K., & Hodges, J. (2020). Brief parenting support for parents of teenagers dealing with family conflict: a randomized controlled trial. Child & Youth Care Forum, 49, 799–816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-020-09557-2.
Dittman, C. K., Farruggia, S. P., Keown, L. J., & Sanders, M. R. (2016). Dealing with disobedience: an evaluation of a brief parenting intervention for young children showing noncompliant behavior problems. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47, 102–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0548-9.
Eyberg, S. M., & Ross, A. W. (1978). Assessment of child problem behaviors: the validation of a new inventory. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 7, 113–116.
Forehand, R., Lafko, N., Parent, J., & Burt, B. B. (2014). Is parenting the mediator of change in behavioral parent training for externalizing problems of youth? Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 608–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.10.001.
Friedman, D. H. (2000). Parenting in public: Family shelter and public assistance. Columbia University Press, New York, NY.
Glazemakers, I., & Deboutte, D. (2013). Modifying the “Positive Parenting Program” for parents with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57, 616–626. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01566.x.
Haskett, M. E., Armstrong, J. M., Neal, S. C., & Aldianto, K. (2018). Perceptions of Triple P- Positive Parenting Program Seminars among parents experiencing homelessness. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 1957–1967. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1016-5.
Haskett, M. E., Loehman, J., & Burkhart, K. (2014). Parenting interventions in shelter settings: a qualitative systematic review of the literature. Child & Family Social Work, 21, 272–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12147.
Haskett, M. E., Perlman, S., & Cowan, B. A. (2014). Supporting families experiencing homelessness. Springer, New York, NY.
Herbers, J., Cutuli, J. J., Supkoff, L. M., Narayan, A. J., & Masten, A. S. (2014). Parenting and coregulation: adaptive systems for competence in children experiencing homelessness. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84, 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099843.
Holtrop, K., Chaviano, C. L., Scott, J. C., & McNeil Smith, S. (2015). Identifying relevant components to include in a parenting intervention for homeless families in transitional housing: Using parent input to inform adaptation efforts. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85, 600–611. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000111.
Joachim, S., Sanders, M. R., & Turner, K. M. T. (2010). Reducing preschoolers’ disruptive behavior in public with a brief parent discussion group. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41, 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-009-0151-z.
Keeshin, B. R., & Campbell, K. (2011). Screening homeless youth for histories of abuse: prevalence, enduring effects, and interest in treatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35, 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.01.015.
Kelley, M. L., Lawrence, H. R., Milletich, R. J., Hollis, B. F., & Henson, J. M. (2015). Modeling risk for child abuse and harsh parenting in families with depressed and substance-abusing parents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 43, 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.017.
Lee, S. S., August, G. J., Gewirtz, A. H., Klimes-Dougan, B., Bloomquist, M. L., & Realmuto, G. M. (2010). Identifying unmet mental health needs in children of formerly homeless mothers living in a supportive housing community sector of care. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 421–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9378-1.
Lim, J., Wood, B. L., Miller, D., & Simmens, S. J. (2011). Effects of paternal and maternal depressive symptoms on child internalizing symptoms and asthma disease activity: mediation by interparental negativity and parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022452.
Masten, A. S., Cutuli, J. J., Herbers, J. E., Hinz, E., Obradovic, J., & Wenzel, A. J. (2014). Academic risk and resilience in the context of homelessness. Child Development Perspectives, 8, 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12088/10.
Mejia, A., Calam, R., & Sanders, M. R. (2015). A pilot randomized controlled trial of a brief parenting intervention in low-resource settings in Panama. Prevention Science, 16, 707–717. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-015-0551-1.
Morawska, A., Adamson, M., Hinchliffe, K., & Adams, T. (2014). Hassle Free Mealtimes Triple P: a randomised controlled trial of a brief parenting group for childhood mealtime difficulties. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 53, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.11.007.
Morawska, A., Haslam, D., Milne, D., & Sanders, M. R. (2011). Evaluation of a brief parenting discussion group for parents of young children. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 32, 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181f17a28.
Obradovic, J. (2010). Effortful control and adaptive functioning of homeless children: variable-focused and person-focused analyses. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2009.09.004.
Ondersma, S., Chaffin, M., Mullins, S., & LeBreton, J. (2005). A brief form of the Child Abuse Potential Inventory: development and validation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3402_9.
Overall, J. E., Tonidandel, S., & Starbuck, R. R. (2009). Last-observation-carried-forward (LOCF) and tests for difference in mean rates of change in controlled repeated measurements designs with dropouts. Social Science Research, 38, 492–503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.01.004.
Palmer, M. L., Keown, L. J., Sanders, M. R., & Henderson, M. (2019). Enhancing outcomes of low-intensity parenting groups through sufficient exemplar training: a randomized control trial. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 50, 384–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0847-z.
Park, J. M., Metraux, S., Brodbar, G., & Culhane, D. P. (2004). Child welfare involvement among children in homeless families. Child Welfare, 83(5), 423–436.
Pelaez, M., Field, T., Pickens, J. N., & Hart, S. (2008). Disengaged and authoritarian parenting behavior of depressed mothers with their toddlers. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 145–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.06.002.
Perlman, S., & Fantuzzo, J. (2010). Timing and influence of early experiences of child maltreatment and homelessness on children’s educational well-being. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 874–883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.02.007.
Perlman, S., Sheller, S., Hudson, K. M., & Wilson, C. L. (2014). Parenting in the face of homelessness. In M. E. Haskett, S. Perlman, & B. Cowan (Eds.), Supporting families experiencing homelessness. (pp. 57–77). Springer, New York, NY.
Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: the U.S. Triple p system population trial. Prevention Science, 10, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0123-3.
Rhoades, K. A., & O’Leary, S. G. (2007). Factor structure and validity of the Parenting Scale. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410701274157.
Sanders, M. R. (1999). Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: towards an empirically validated multilevel parenting and family support strategy for the prevention of behavior and emotional problems in children. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021843613840.
Sanders, M. R., Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Day, J. J. (2014). The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: a systematic review and meta-analysis of a multi-level system of parenting support. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 337–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.04.003.
Schilling, S., Lanier, P., Rose, R. A., Shanahan, M., & Zolotor, A. J. (2020). A quasi-experimental effectiveness study of Triple P on child maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 35, 373–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00043-.
Shapiro, C. J., Kilburn, J., & Hardin, J. W. (2014). Prevention of behavior problems in a selected population: stepping Stones Triple P for parents of young children with disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 2958–2975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.07.036.
Smith, S. M., Holtrop, K., & Reyonlds, J. (2015). Do positive parenting practices moderate parental mental health and child behavior among homeless families? Family Relations, 64, 606–620. https://doi.org/10.1037/t07845-000.
Steele, R. G., Nesbitt-Daly, J. S., Daniel, R. C., & Forehand, R. (2005). Factor structure of the Parenting Scale in low-income African-American sample. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 14, 535–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-005-7187-x.
Swick, K. J., & Williams, R. (2010). The voices of single parent mothers who are homeless: implications for early childhood professionals. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-010-0378-0.
Tully, L. A. & Hunt, C. (2017). A randomized controlled trial of a brief versus standard group parenting program for toddler aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 43, 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21689.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Homeless Education (2020). Number of Homeless Children/Youth Enrolled in Public School, by Year. http://profiles.nche.seiservices.com/ConsolidatedStateProfile.aspx.
Walker, C. A., & Davies, J. (2010). A critical review of the psychometric evidence base of the Child Abuse Potential Inventory. Journal of Family Violence, 25, 215–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-009-9285-9.
Walker, C. A., & Davies, J. (2012). A cross-cultural validation of the Brief Child Abuse Potential Inventory (BCAP). Journal of Family Violence, 27, 697–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-012-9458-9.
Wessels, I., & Ward, C. L. (2016). Battered women and parenting: acceptability of an evidence-based parenting programme to women in shelters. Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 28, 21–31. https://doi.org/10.2989/17280583.2015.1132425.
Yu, M., North, C. S., Lavesser, P. D., Osborne, V. A., & Spitznagel, E. L. (2008). A comparison study of psychiatric and behavior disorders and cognitive ability among homeless and housed children. Community Mental Health Journal, 44, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-007-9100-0.
Zugazaga, C. B. (2008). Understanding social support of the homeless: a comparison of single men, single women, and women with children. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 89, 447–455. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.3770.
Funding
Partial financial support was received from Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, North Carolina State University Suniti-Anand Gupta Scholarship to Support Graduate Student Research, and NC State University Department of Psychology John Oliver Cook Dissertation Fellowship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Internal Review Board of NC State University.
Informed Consent
Written informed consent was obtained from the participants.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Armstrong, J.M., Owens, C.R. & Haskett, M.E. Effects of a Brief Parenting Intervention In Shelters For Mothers And Their Children Experiencing Homelessness. J Child Fam Stud 30, 2097–2107 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02021-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02021-2