Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Risk and Resilience among Children with Incarcerated Parents: Examining Heterogeneity in Delinquency and School Outcomes

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study utilized latent profile analysis with 1088 children with incarcerated parents to identify heterogeneity in behavioral and social problems. Four profiles were observed. The majority (61%) were well-adjusted with low behavioral problems at school and less affiliation with antisocial friends. Youth classified as overactive (20%) displayed frequent disruptive and hyperactive behaviors, while isolated youth (14%) exhibited high loneliness and depression and were most likely to be bullied. Youth in the aggressive profile (7%) exhibited frequent aggression, school behavioral problems, and affiliation with antisocial friends. Although the aggressive profile represented the smallest proportion of the sample, their level of delinquent behavior and number of negative school outcomes were the most concerning. Examination of risk and protective factors by profile found overactive and isolated youth to be more likely to have two or more adults in the household compared to well-adjusted and aggressive youth. Meanwhile, well-adjusted youth had significantly higher school connectedness, parent support, and positive teacher relationships. Aggressive youth were least likely to be raised by a married caregiver. Universal behavioral assessments of children with incarcerated parents would be useful in identifying youth at risk for escalating or persistent delinquency or hyperactivity.

Highlights

  • Most children with incarcerated parents have positive behavioral and school outcomes.

  • 20% of youth displayed hyperactivity, while 14% reported loneliness and bullying.

  • Youth at highest risk for delinquency represented only 7% of the sample.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aaron, L., & Dallaire, D. H. (2010). Parental incarceration and multiple risk experiences: effects on family dynamics and children’s delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(12), 1471–1484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9458-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York NY: New Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Costello, E., Pickles, A., Messer, S., Winder, F., & Silver, D. (1995). The development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 237–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The inventory of parent and peer attachment: individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(5), 427–454.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, E., Eggins, E., Reid, N., Harnett, P., & Dawe, S. (2018). Parenting interventions for incarcerated parents to improve parenting knowledge and skills, parent well-being, and quality of the parent–child relationship: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14(3), 279–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asher, S. R., Hymel, S., & Renshaw, P. D. (1984). Loneliness in children. Child Development, 55(4), 1456–1464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J., McHale, J., Strozier, A., & Cecil, D. (2010). Mother–grandmother coparenting relationships in families with incarcerated mothers: a Pilot Investigation. Family Process, 49(2), 165–185.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, N., McEachin, A., Mills, J. N., & Valant, J. (2017). What are the sources of school discipline disparities by student race and family income. New Orleans: Education Research Alliance for New Orleans.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M. F., Bayliss, D. M., Glauert, R., & Ohan, J. L. (2018). Using linked data to investigate developmental vulnerabilities in children of convicted parents. Developmental Psychology, 54(7), 1219–1231. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000521.supp.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boswell, G., & Wedge, P. (2002). Imprisoned fathers and their children. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., & Bukowski, W. (2000). Deviant friends and early adolescents’ emotional and behavioral adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 173–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewster, A. B., & Bowen, G. L. (2004). Teacher support and the school engagement of Latino middle and high school students at risk of school failure. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21(1), 47–67. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CASW.0000012348.83939.6b.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boch, S. J., Warren, B. J., & Ford, J. L. (2019). Attention, externalizing, and internalizing problems of youth exposed to parental incarceration. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(6), 466–475. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840.2019.1565872.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., Bernat, D. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Racial identity, parental support, and alcohol use in a sample of academically at-risk African American high school students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34(1–2), 71–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carson, E. A. (2020). Prisoners in 2018. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Program, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(1), 98–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/1522-3736.5.1.515a.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Celeux, G., & Soromenho, G. (1996). An entropy criterion for assessing the number of clusters in a mixture model. Journal of Classification, 13(2), 195–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, K., & Stewart, K. (2013). Does money affect children’s outcomes?: a systematic review. London: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1996). Children’s treatment by peers: victims of relational and overt aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 367–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dallaire, D. H. (2007). Incarcerated mothers and fathers: a comparison of risks for children and families. Family Relations, 56(5), 440–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dallaire, D. H., & Wilson, L. (2010). The relation of exposure to parental criminal activity, arrest, and sentencing to children’s maladjustment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(4), 404–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dallaire, D. H., & Zeman, J. L. (2013). Empathy as a protective factor for children with incarcerated parents. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(3), 7–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, L., & Shlafer, R. J. (2017). Mental health of adolescents with currently and formerly incarcerated parents. Journal of Adolescence, 54, 120–134.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Ageton, S. S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geller, A., & Franklin, A. W. (2014). Paternal incarceration and the housing security of urban mothers. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 76(2), 411–427.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Glaze, L. E., & Maruschak, L. M. (2010). Parents in prison and their minor children. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Program, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goncalves, F. & Mello, S. (2020). A few bad apples? Racial bias in policing. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3627809.

  • Hanlon, T. E., Blatchley, R. J., Bennett-Sears, T., O’Grady, K. E., Rose, M., & Callaman, J. M. (2005). Vulnerability of children of incarcerated addict mothers: Implications for preventive intervention. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(1), 67–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haskins, A. R. (2014). Unintended consequences: effects of paternal incarceration on child school readiness and later special education placement. Sociological Science, 1, 141–158.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Haskins, A. R. (2015). Paternal incarceration and child-reported behavioral functioning at age 9. Social Science Research, 52, 18–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.01.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haskins, A. R., & Jacobsen, W. (2017). Schools as surveilling institutions? Paternal incarceration, system avoidance, and parental involvement in schooling. American Sociological Review, 82(4), 657–684.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, W. (2015). Punished for their fathers: school discipline among children of the prison boom (no. wp14-08-ff). Princeton University, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Center for Research on Child Wellbeing.

  • Karcher, M. J., & Lindwall, J. (2001). Social interest, connectedness, and challenging experiences: What makes high school mentors persist? The Journal of Individual Psychology, 59(3), 293–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kjellstrand, J., Yu, G., Eddy, J. M., & Clark, M. (2019). Children with incarcerated parents and developmental trajectories of internalizing problems across adolescence. American Journal of Criminal Justice. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-019-09494-4.

  • Kjellstrand, J., Reinke, W., & Eddy, J. (2018). Children of incarcerated parents: development of externalizing behaviors across adolescence. Children & Youth Services Review, 94, 628–635.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kopak, A., & Smith-Ruiz, D. (2016). Criminal justice involvement, drug use, and depression among African American children of incarcerated parents. Race and Justice, 6, 89–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krumpal, I. (2013). Determinants of social desirability bias in sensitive surveys: a literature review. Quality & Quantity, 47(4), 2025–2047.

    Google Scholar 

  • Libbey, H. P. (2004). Measuring student relationships to school: attachment, bonding, connectedness, and engagement. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 274–283.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Looney, A., & Turner, N. (2018). Work and opportunity before and after incarceration. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lösel, F., Pugh, G., Markson, L., Souza, K., & Lanskey, C. (2012). Risk and protective factors in the resettlement of imprisoned fathers with their families. Milton: Ormiston Children and Families Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackintosh, V., Myers, B., & Kennon, S. (2006). Children of incarcerated mothers and their caregivers: Factors affecting the quality of their relationship. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(5), 579–594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9030-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maddox, S. J., & Prinz, R. J. (2003). School bonding in children and adolescents: Conceptualization, assessment, and associated variables. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6(1), 31–49. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022214022478.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLachlan, G., & Peel, D. (2004). Finite mixture models. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

  • Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., & Eccles, J. S. (1989). Student/teacher relations and attitudes toward mathematics before and after the transition to junior high school. Child Development, 60, 981–992.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mrazek, P. J., & Haggerty, R. J. (1994). Reducing risks for mental disorders: frontiers for preventative intervention research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumola, C. J. (2000). Incarcerated parents and their children. bureau of justice statistics special report. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED448903.

  • Murphey, D., & Cooper, P. M. (2015). Parents behind bars: what happens to their children. Washington, DC: Child Trends.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J., & Farrington, D. P. (2005). Parental imprisonment: Effects on boys’ antisocial behaviour and delinquency through the life-course. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46(12); 1269–1278.

  • Murray, J., Farrington, D. P., & Sekol, I. (2012). Children’s antisocial behavior, mental health, drug use, and educational performance after parental incarceration: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 175–210.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. (2012). Parental involvement in the criminal justice system and the development of youth thefts marijuana use, depression, and academic performance. Criminology, 50(1), 255–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naudeau, S. (2010). Children of incarcerated parents: developmental trajectories among school-age children. In Y. Harris, J. Graham & G. Oliver Carpenter (Eds), Children of incarcerated parents: theoretical, developmental, and clinical issues. New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nesmith, A., & Ruhland, E. (2008). Children of incarcerated parents: challenges and resiliency, in their own words. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(10), 1119–1130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, E. B., & Loper, A. B. (2012). Incarceration in the household: academic outcomes of adolescents with an incarcerated household member. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(11), 1455–1471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9780-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, E., Loper, A. B., & Meyer, J. P. (2016). Promoting educational resiliency in youth with incarcerated parents: the impact of parental incarceration, school characteristics, and connectedness on school outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(6), 1090–1109.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, S., Pecenco, M., & Weaver, J. (2018). The effects of parental and sibling incarceration: evidence from Ohio. Working paper.

  • Norris, S., Pecenco, M., & Weaver, J. (2020). The effects of parental and sibling incarceration: Evidence from Ohio. SSRN. Available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3590735.

  • Orpinas, P., & Frankowski, R. (2001). The aggression scale: a self-report measure of aggressive behavior for young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21(1), 50–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70, 323–367. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170786.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Milich, R., Murphy, D. A., & Murphy, H. (1989). Normative data on the IOWA Conners Teacher Rating Scale. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18(3), 259–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poehlmann, J., Park, J., Bouffiou, L., Abrahams, J., Shlafer, R., & Hahn, E. (2008). Representations of family relationships in children living with custodial grandparents. Attachment & Human Development, 10(2), 165–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Everitt, B. S. (2007). A handbook of statistical analyses using stata. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, O. (2012). Children of incarcerated parents. Geneva: Quaker United Nations Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roettger, M. E., & Swisher, R. R. (2011). Associations of fathers’ history of incarceration with sons’ delinquency and arrest among Black, White, and Hispanic males in the United States. Criminology, 49(4), 1109–1147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00253.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, J., van Lissa, C., Schmidt, J., Beymer, P., Anderson, D., & Schell, M. (2019). tidyLPA: easily carry out latent profile analysis (LPA) using open-source or commercial software. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=tidyLPA.

  • Ruiz, D., & Kopak, A. (2014). The consequences of parental incarceration for African American mothers, children, and grandparent caregivers. Journal of Pan African Studies, 7(6), 9–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shader, M. (2001). Risk factors for delinquency: an overview. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shlafer, R., Reedy, T., & Davis, L. (2017). School‐based outcomes among youth with incarcerated parents: Differences by school setting. Journal of School Health, 87, 687–695.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, P. J., & Harm, N. J. (1995). Parent education for mothers in prison. Pediatric Nursing, 21(6), 552–555.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., Farnworth, M., & Jang, S. J. (1994). Delinquent peers, beliefs, and delinquent behavior: a longitudinal test of interactional theory. Criminology, 32(1), 47–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Travis, J., Solomon, A. L., & Waul, M. (2001). From Prison to Home: The Dimensions and Consequences of Prisoner Reentry. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. Retrieved from http://research.urban.org/UploadedPDF/from_prison_to_home.pdf.

  • Travis, J., Solomon, A., & Waul, M. (2001). From prison to home: the dimensions and consequences of prisoner reentry. PsycEXTRA Dataset.

  • Trice, A. D., & Brewster, J. (2004). The effects of maternal incarceration on adolescent children. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 19(1), 27–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turney, K. (2014). Stress proliferation across generations? Examining the relationship between parental incarceration and childhood health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 55(3), 302–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146514544173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turney, K., & Haskins, A. R. (2014). Falling behind? Children’s early grade retention after paternal incarceration. Sociology of Education, 87(4), 241–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turney, K., & Lanuza, Y. R. (2017). Parental incarceration and the transition to adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 79(5), 1314–1330. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Stouwe, T., Asscher, J. J., Stams, G. J. J., Deković, M., & van der Laan, P. H. (2014). The effectiveness of multisystemic therapy (MST): a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(6), 468–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.06.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, M. G., Salas-Wright, C. P., DeLisi, M., & Maynard, B. R. (2014). Violence and externalizing behavior among youth in the United States: is there a severe 5%? Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204013478973.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Visher, C. A., Kachnowski, V., La Vigne, N. G., & Travis, J. (2004). Baltimore prisoners’ experiences returning home. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wildeman, C. (2014). Parental incarceration, child homelessness, and the invisible consequences of mass imprisonment. The Annuals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 651(1), 74–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716213502921.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wildeman, C., & Turney, K. (2014). Positive, negative, or null? The effects of maternal incarceration on children’s behavioral problems. Demography, 51(3), 1041–1068.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by Grant 2014-JU-FX-0004 awarded by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work, Kansas State University, 204 Waters Hall, 1603 Old Claflin Place, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA

    Kristen P. Kremer

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, USA

    Cyanea Y. S. Poon, Cherrelle L. Jones, Matthew A. Hagler & Jean E. Rhodes

  3. Innovation Research & Training, Durham, NC, USA

    Janis B. Kupersmidt, Rebecca L. Stelter & Kathryn N. Stump

Authors
  1. Kristen P. Kremer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cyanea Y. S. Poon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cherrelle L. Jones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Matthew A. Hagler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Janis B. Kupersmidt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rebecca L. Stelter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Kathryn N. Stump
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Jean E. Rhodes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kristen P. Kremer.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kremer, K.P., Poon, C.Y.S., Jones, C.L. et al. Risk and Resilience among Children with Incarcerated Parents: Examining Heterogeneity in Delinquency and School Outcomes. J Child Fam Stud 29, 3239–3252 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01822-1

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01822-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation