Abstract
Objective
Parent-child communication about substance abuse, violence, and HIV/AIDS (i.e., SAVA) may protect against intergenerational risks, as open communication can enhance children’s resilience to combat adversities. We used moderation analyses to identify variables that affect mothers’ comfort with communicating with their children about SAVA.
Methods
Participants (Mage = 34.62 years; SD = 7.95) were mothers of youth between the ages of 6 and 14 who endorsed experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) within the last six months. Mothers reported on their experiences with IPV victimization (Revised Conflict Tactics Scale) and perpetration (History of Violence Perpetration Measure), and their comfort communicating with their children about SAVA (Parent-Child Communication about SAVA Scale).
Results
More severe IPV was associated with less comfort communicating (β = −003; p < 0.01). In addition, more frequent IPV perpetration was associated with less comfort communicating (β = −2.46; p < 0.01). Moderation was supported, such that the association between experiencing IPV and comfort with communication varied by experiences with IPV perpetration (β = 0.01; p < 0.01). Child’s age was a significant moderator of the relationship between bidirectional intimate partner violence (i.e., experiencing both victimization and perpetration), and comfort with communicating (β = −0.0004; p < 0.01).
Conclusions
Findings highlight the negative consequences of bidirectional violence, such that mothers who are both victims and perpetrators of violence were less willing to communicate with their children. Given the crucial role of communication in promoting resilience, this lack of communication may place children on a problematic health trajectory.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackard, D. M., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., & Perry, C. (2006). Parent-child connectedness and behavioral and emotional health among adolescents. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30, 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2005.09.013.
Alexopoulos, C., & Cho, J. (2018). A moderated mediation model of parent–child communication, risk taking, alcohol consumption, and sexual experience in early adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48, 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1181-z.
Andrews, J. A., Foster, S. L., Capaldi, D., & Hops, H. (2000). Adolescent and family predictors of physical aggression, communication, and satisfaction in young adult couples: a prospective analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.68.2.195.
Austin, A. E., Shanahan, M. E., Barrios, Y. V., & Macy, R. J. (2019). A systematic review of interventions for women parenting in the context of intimate partner violence. Trauma Violence Abus2, 20, 498–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017719233.
Bastien, S., Kajula, L. J., & Muhwezi, W. W. (2011). A review of studies of parent-child communication about sexuality and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. Reproductive Health, 8, 25–25. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4755-8-25.
Bogart, L. M., Collins, R. L., Cunningham, W., Beckman, R., Golinelli, D., Eisenman, D., & Bird, C. E. (2005). The association of partner abuse with risky sexual behaviors among women and men with HIV/AIDS. AIDS and Behavior, 9, 325–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-005-9006-1.
Bogart, L. M., Skinner, D., Thurston, I. B., Toefy, Y., Klein, D. J., Hu, C. H., & Schuster, M. A. (2013). Let's Talk!, A South African worksite-based HIV prevention parenting program. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, 602–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.014.
Brown, A. M., Fitzgerald, M. M., Shipman, K., & Schneider, R. (2007). Children’s expectations of parent–child communication following interparental conflict: do parents talk to children about conflict? Journal of Family Violence, 22, 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9095-x.
Clements, C. M., Oxtoby, C., & Ogle, R. L. (2008). Methodological issues in assessing psycholgoical adjustmen in child witnesses of intimate partner violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 9, 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008315870.
DeKeseredy, W. S., & Schwartz, M. D. (1998). Measuring the extent of woman abuse in intimate heterosexual relationships: a critique of the conflict tactics scales. National Electronic Network on Violence Against Women. http://stoprelationshipabuse.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/A-Critique-of-the-Conflict-Tactics-Scales.pdf.
DeVoe, E. R., & Smith, E. L. (2002). The impact of domestic violence on urban preschool children: Battered mothers' perspectives. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 1075–1101. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605-0201710-04.
DiIorio, C., Pluhar, E., & Belcher, L. (2003). Parent-child communication about sexuality. Journal of HIV/AIDS Prevention & Education for Adolescents & Children, 5, 7–32. https://doi.org/10.1300/J129v05n03_02.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.41.4.1149.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146.
Flanagan, J. C., Jaquier, V., Overstreet, N., Swan, S. C., & Sullivan, T. P. (2014). The mediating role of avoidance coping between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization, mental health, and substance abuse among women experiencing bidirectional IPV. Psychiatry Research, 220, 391–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2014.07.065.
Gonzalez-Guarda, R. M., Florom-Smith, A. L., & Thomas, T. (2011). A syndemic model of substance abuse, intimate partner violence, HIV infection, and mental health among Hispanics. Public Health Nursing, 28, 366–378. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1446.2010.00928.x.
Gray, H. M., & Foshee, V. (1997). Adolescent dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 126–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626097012001008.
Guilamo-Ramos, V., Jaccard, J., Dittus, P., & Bouris, A. M. (2006). Parental expertise, trustworthiness, and accessibility: Parent-adolescent communication and adolescent risk behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 1229–1246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00325.x.
Halford, W. K., Petch, J., Creedy, D. K., & Gamble, J. (2011). Intimate partner violence in couples seeking relationship education for the transition to parenthood. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 10, 152–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332691.2011.562835.
Hayashi, H. D., Patterson, T. L., Semple, S. J., Fujimoto, K., & Stockman, J. K. (2016). Risk factors for recent intimate partner violence among methamphetamine-using men and women. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 48, 135–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2016.1170249.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Holmes, S. C., Johnson, N. L., Rojas-Ashe, E. E., Ceroni, T. L., Fedele, K. M., & Johnson, D. M. (2019). Prevalence and predictors of bidirectional violence in survivors of intimate partner violence residing at shelters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 3492–3515. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516670183.
Humphreys, C., Mullender, A., Thiara, R., & Skamballis, A. (2006). ‘Talking to my mum’: developing communication between mothers and children in the aftermath of domestic violence. Journal of Social Work, 6, 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017306062223.
Hyun, S. (2011). Factor structure and reliability of the revised conflict tactics scales’ (CTS2) 10-factor model in a community-based female sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 719–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510365857.
Insetta, E. R., Akers, A. Y., Miller, E., Yonas, M. A., Burke, J. G., Hintz, L., & Chang, J. C. (2015). Intimate partner violence victims as mothers: their messages and strategies for communicating with children to break the cycle of violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30, 703–724. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514535264.
Jaccard, J., Dodge, T., & Dittus, P. (2002). Parent-adolescent communication about sex and birth control: a conceptual framework. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 9–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.48.
Kahya, Y. (2018). Intimate partner violence victimization and perpetration in a Turkish female sample: rejection sensitivity and hostility. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518786499.
Karofsky, P. S., Zeng, L., & Kosorok, M. R. (2001). Relationship between adolescent-parental communication and initiation of first intercourse by adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28, 41–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(00)00156-7.
Kerwin, M. E. (2005). Collaboration between child welfare and substance-abuse fields: combined treatment programs for mothers. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 30, 581–597. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsio45.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Misra, T. A., Selwyn, C., & Rohling, M. L. (2012). Rates of bidirectional versus unidirectional intimate partner violence across samples, sexual orientations, and race/ethnicities: a comprehensive review. Partner Abuse, 3, 199–230. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.199.
Lefkowitz, E. S. (2002). Beyond the yes-no question: measuring parent-adolescent communication about sex. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 97, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.49.
Lehr, S. T., DiIorio, C., Dudley, W. N., & Lipana, J. A. (2000). The relationship between parent-adolescent communication and safer sex behaviors in college students. Journal of Family Nursing, 6, 180–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/107484070000600206.
Levendosky, A. A., Huth-Bocks, A. C., Shapiro, D. L., & Semel, M. A. (2003). The impact of domestic violence on the maternal-child relationship and preschool-age children's functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.275.
Levin, K. A., & Currie, C. (2010). Family structure, mother‐child communication, father‐child communication, and adolescent life satisfaction: a cross‐sectional multilevel analysis. Health Education, 110, 152–168. https://doi.org/10.1108/09654281011038831.
Lichtenstein, B. (2006). Domestic violence in barriers to health care for HIV-positive women. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 20, 122–132. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2006.20.122.
Loeber, R., Drinkwater, M., Yin, Y., Anderson, S. J., Schmidt, L. C., & Crawford, A. (2000). Stability of family interaction from ages 6 to 18. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005169026208.
Lyons, A. C., & Spicer, J. (1999). A new measure of conversational experience: the speaking extent and comfort scale (SPEACS). Assessment, 6, 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/107319119900600206.
McCloskey, L. A. (2013). The intergenerational transfer of mother–daughter risk for gender-based abuse. Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 41, 303–328. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2013.41.2.303.
McDonald, R., Jouriles, E. N., Rosenfield, D., & Leahy, M. M. (2012). Children's questions about interparent conflict and violence: what's a mother to say? Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026122.
McGee, C. (2000). Childhood experiences of domestic violence. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
McGue, M., Elkins, I., Walden, B., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Perceptions of the parent-adolescent relationship: a longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 41, 971–984. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.6.971.
Meyer, J. P., Springer, S. A., & Altice, F. L. (2011). Substance abuse, violence, and HIV in women: a literature review of the syndemic. Journal of Women's Health, 20, 991–1006. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2010.2328.
Milligan, K., Niccols, A., Sword, W., Thabane, L., Henderson, J., Smith, A., & Liu, J. (2010). Maternal substance use and integrated treatment programs for women with substance abuse issues and their children: a meta-analysis. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 5, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-5-21.
Mullender, A., Hague, G., Imam, U., Kelly, L., Malos, E., & Regan, L. (2002). Children's perspectives on domestic violence. London, UK: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Neamah, H. H., Sudfeld, C., McCoy, D. C., Fink, G., Fawzi, W. W., Masanja, H., & Smith Fawzi, M. C. (2018). Intimate partner violence, depression, and child growth and development. Pediatrics, 142, e20173457 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-3457.
Niccols, A., Milligan, K., Smith, A., Sword, W., Thabane, L., & Henderson, J. (2012). Integrated programs for mothers with substance abuse issues and their children: a systematic review of studies reporting on child outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 308–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.10.007.
Nolin, M. J., & Petersen, K. K. (1992). Gender differences in parent-child communication about sexuality: An exploratory study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 59–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489271005.
Palazzolo, K. E., Roberto, A. J., & Babin, E. A. (2010). The relationship between parents' verbal aggression and young adult children's intimate partner violence victimization and perpetration. Health Communication, 25, 357–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410231003775180.
Pels, T., van Rooij, F. B., & Distelbrink, M. (2015). The impact of intimate partner violence (IPV) on parenting by mothers within an ethnically diverse population in the Netherlands. Journal of Family Violence, 30, 1055–1067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9746-2.
Pence, E., & Paymar, M. (1986). Power and control: Tactics of men who batter. Duluth, MN: Minnesota Program Development Inc.
Renner, L. M., & Whitney, S. D. (2012). Risk factors for unidirectional and bidirectional intimate partner violence among young adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 40–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.07.007.
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., & Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm. Findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. JAMA, 278, 823–832. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550100049038.
Riesch, S. K., Anderson, L. S., & Krueger, H. A. (2006). Parent-child communication processes: preventing children's health-risk behavior. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 11, 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6155.2006.00042.x.
Romero-Daza, N., Weeks, M., & Singer, M. (2003). "Nobody gives a damn if I live or die": violence, drugs, and street-level prostitution in inner-city Hartford, Connecticut. Medical Anthropology, 22, 233–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/01459740306770.
Samuelson, K. W., & Cashman, C. (2008). Effects of intimate partner violence and maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms on children's emotional and behavioral functioning. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 8, 139–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926790801986007.
Siemieniuk, R. A., Krentz, H. B., & Gill, M. J. (2013). Intimate partner violence and HIV: a review. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 10, 380–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-013-0173-9.
Singer, M. (1996). A dose of drugs, a touch of violence, a case of AIDS: conceptualizing the SAVA syndemic. Free Inquiry - Special Issue: Gangs, Drugs, & Violence, 24, 99–110.
Singer, M., Bulled, N., Ostrach, B., & Mendenhall, E. (2017). Syndemics and the biosocial conception of health. The Lancet, 389, 941–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30003-X.
Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: parent–adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00001.
Stover, C. S., Meadows, A. L., & Kaufman, J. (2009). Interventions for intimate partner violence: review and implications for evidence-based practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40, 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012718.
Straus, M. (2004). Cross-cultural reliability and validity of the revised conflict tactics scales: a study of university student dating couples in 17 nations. Cross-Cultural Research, 38, 407–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397104269543.
Straus, M. (2005). Women's violence toward men is a serious social problem. In R. J. Gelles & M. M. Cavanaugh (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 55–78). Thoursand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Straus, M., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2). Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251396017003001.
Sue, D. W., & Sue, S. (2012). Counseling the culturally diverse: theory and practice. 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Thurston, I. B., Howell, K. H., Kamody, R. C., Maclin-Akinyemi, C., & Mandell, J. (2018). Resilience as a moderator between syndemics and depression in mothers living with HIV. AIDS Care, 30, 1257–1264. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2018.1446071.
Tsai, A. C. (2018). Syndemics: a theory in search of data or data in search of a theory? Social Science & Medicine, 206, 117–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.03.040.
Tyler, K. A., Melander, L. A., & Noel, H. (2009). Bidirectional partner violence among homeless young adults: risk factors and outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1014–1035. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508319364.
Ungar, M., Ghazinour, M., & Richter, J. (2013). Annual research Review: What Is Resilience within the social ecology of human development? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 54, 348–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12025.
Velotti, P., Beomonte Zobel, S., Rogier, G., & Tambelli, R. (2018). Exploring relationships: a systematic review on intimate partner violence and attachment. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–42. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01166.
Wallenius, M., Punamaki, R. L., & Rimpela, A. (2007). Digital game playing and direct and indirect aggression in early adolescence: the roles of age, social intelligence, and parent-child communication. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 325–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9151-5.
Weinman, M. L., Small, E., Buzi, R. S., & Smith, P. B. (2008). Risk factors, parental communication, self and peers’ beliefs as predictors of condom use among female adolescents attending family planning clinics. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 25, 157 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-008-0118-0.
Whitaker, D. J., Haileyesus, T., Swahn, M., & Saltzman, L. S. (2007). Differences in frequency of violence and reported injury between relationships with reciprocal and nonreciprocal intimate partner violence. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 941–947. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2005.079020.
Wilson, E. K., & Koo, H. P. (2010). Mothers, fathers, sons, and daughters: gender differences in factors associated with parent-child communication about sexual topics. Reproductive Health, 7, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4755-7-31.
Wyckoff, S. C., Miller, K. S., Forehand, R., Bau, J. J., Fasula, A., Long, N., & Armistead, L. (2008). Patterns of sexuality communication between preadolescents and their mothers and fathers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17, 649–662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-007-9179-5.
Author contributions
R.K.: designed and executed the study, analyzed data, and wrote the paper. K.H.: designed and executed larger parent study, collaborated with the design of the present study, and writing of the paper. L.E.S.: collaborated in the writing and editing of the manuscript. L.M.S.: collaborated in the writing and editing of the manuscript. I.T.: designed and executed larger parent study, collaborated with the design of the present study, and writing of the paper.
Funding
This study was funded by grants from The University of Memphis Faculty Research Grant Fund and The University of Memphis Diversity Research Grant. This support does not necessarily imply endorsement by the University of research conclusions.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the University of Memphis Institutional Review Board and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kamody, R.C., Howell, K.H., Schwartz, L.E. et al. A Cross-Sectional Examination of Intimate Partner Violence and Mother-Child Communication. J Child Fam Stud 29, 1363–1373 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01617-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01617-z