Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Parent-focused Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program: Development, Acceptability, and Feasibility

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objectives

Child sexual abuse (CSA) affects nearly 60,000 children in the U.S. annually. Although prevention efforts targeting adults in the community and school-aged children have been somewhat successful, there is a clear gap in the current prevention efforts: parents. Generalized parent-education (PE) programs have effectively reduced the rates of physical abuse and neglect; however, currently no PE program targets risk factors for CSA specifically. We sought to develop a brief parent-focused CSA prevention module to be added onto existing PE programs thereby leveraging the skills and implementation infrastructure to ensure sustainability.

Methods

In three phases, we developed the curriculum, refined content and presentation while simultaneously developing and psychometrically evaluating a measurement tool, and conducted an acceptability and feasibility pilot. These phases are described in detail such that intervention scientists wishing to develop a module to be added onto existing programs can follow our procedures.

Results

The results of each phase are described so that the reader can see how information gleaned in one part of a phase informed subsequent phases of research. This was an iterative process of development, refinement, and piloting.

Conclusions

The resultant parent-focused CSA prevention module is designed to be added onto extant evidence-based PE programs. The module, and the additive approach of the intervention, will be evaluated in a future randomized controlled trial.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albritton, S., Klotz, J., & Roberson, T. (2003). Parents as Teachers: Advancing parent involvement in a child’s education. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association. Biloxi, MS.

  • Andrews, K. R., Silk, K. S., & Eneli, I. U. (2010). Parents as health promoters: A theory of planned behavior perspective on the prevention of childhood obesity. Journal of Health Communication, 15(1), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730903460567.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, J. E., Noll, J. G., Putnam, F. W., & Trickett, P. K. (2009). Sexual and physical revictimization among victims of severe childhood sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 33(7), 412–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.09.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barter, C., & Renold, E. (2000). “I wanna tell you a story”: Exploring the application of vignettes in qualitative research with children and young people. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 3(4), 307–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Zeev, D., Brenner, C. J., Begale, M., Duffecy, J., Mohr, D. C., & Mueser, K. T. (2014). Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of a smartphone intervention for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(6), 1244–1253. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu033.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Berrick, J. D. (1988). Parental involvement in child abuse prevention training: what do they learn? Child Abuse Negl, 12(4), 543–553.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, E. S., & Wurtele, S. K. (1998). Enhancing parent-child communication about sexual abuse: a pilot study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(11), 1167–1175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00094-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaffin, M., Hecht, D., Bard, D., Silovsky, J. F., & Beasley, W. H. (2012). A statewide trial of the SafeCare home-based services model with parents in Child Protective Services. Pediatrics, 129(3), 509–515. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1840.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Collings, S. J. (1997). Development, reliability, and validity of the Child Sexual Abuse Myth Scale. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12(5), 665–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daro, D. A. (1994). Prevention of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children, 4(2), 198–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., Kavanagh, K., Schneiger, A., Nelson, S., & Kaufman, N. K. (2002). Preventing early adolescent substance use: A family-centered strategy for the public middle school. Prevention Science, 3(3), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019994500301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, M., Anda, R. F., Dube, S. R., Giles, W. H., & Felitti, V. J. (2003). The relationship of exposure to childhood sexual abuse to other forms of abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction during childhood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(6), 625–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D. (1994). Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children, 4(2), 31–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Saito, K., & Jones, L. (2016). Updated trends in child maltreatment, 2014. Crimes Against Children Research Center: Durham, NH.

  • Finkelhor, D., & Shattuck, A. (2012). Characteristics of crimes against juveniles. Crimes Against Children Research Center: Durham, NH.

  • Gould, D. (1996). Using vignettes to collect data for nursing research studies: How valid are the findings? Journal of Clinical Nursing, 5(4), 207–212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guastaferro, K., Lutzker, J. R., Graham, M. L., Shanley, J. R., & Whitaker, D. J. (2012). SafeCare®: Historical perspective and dynamic development of an evidence-based scaled-up model for the prevention of child maltreatment. Psychosocial Intervention, 21(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.5093/in2012a17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guastaferro, K., Miller, K., Lutzker, J. R., Whitaker, D. J., Lai, B. S., Shanley Chatham, J. R., & Kemner, A. (2017). Implementing a braided home-based parent-support curriculum: Lessons learned. Psychosocial Intervention, (26), 181–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psi.2017.03.001.

  • Guastaferro, K., Self-Brown, S., Shanley, J. R., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2018). Engagement in home visiting: An overview of the problem and how a coalition of researchers worked to address this cross-model concern. Journal of Child and Family Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1279-x.

  • Guterman, N. B. (1999). Enrollment strategies in early home visitation to prevent physical child abuse and neglect and the “universal versus targeted” debate: A meta-analysis of population-based and screening-based program. Child Abuse & Neglect, 23(9), 863–890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harte, R., Glynn, L., Rodríguez-Molinero, A., Baker, P. M. A., Scharf, T., Quinlan, L. R., & ÓLaighin, G. (2017). A human-centered design methodology to enhance the usability, human factors, and user experience of connected health systems: A three-phase methodology. JMIR Human Factors, 4(1), e8 https://doi.org/10.2196/humanfactors.5443.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hintze, J. M., Stoner, G., & Bull, M. H. (2000). Analogue assessment: Emotional/behavioral problems. In: E. S. Shapiro & T. R. Kratochwill (eds.), Conducting school-based assessments of child and adolescent behavior. (pp. 55–77). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

  • Hornor, G. (2010). Child sexual abuse: Consequences and implications. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 24(6), 358–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2009.07.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, R., & Huby, M. (2002). The application of vignettes in social and nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 37(4), 382–386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, M. C., & Wurtele, S. K. (2012). Preventing childhood sexual abuse: An ecological approach. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 21(4), 361–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.675567.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B. & Lozano, R. (Eds.) (2002). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/full_en.pdf?ua=1 Retrieved from.

  • Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., & Whiteside, H. O. (2003). Family-based interventions for substance use and misuse prevention. Substance Use and Misuse, 38(11–13), 1759–1787. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-120024240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leeb, R. T., Paulozzi, L., Melanson, C., Simon, T., & Arias, I. (2008). Child maltreatment surveillance: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, Version 1.0. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA.

  • Letourneau, E. J., Brown, D. S., Fang, X., Hassan, A., & Mercy, J. A. (2018). The economic burden of child sexual abuse in the United States. Child Abuse & Neglect, 79, 413–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.02.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letourneau, E. J., Eaton, W. W., Bass, J., Berlin, F. S., & Moore, S. G. (2014). The need for a comprehensive public health approach to preventing child sexual abuse. Public Health Reports, 129(3), 222–228. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-84899712441&partnerID=40&md5=f403fd837a2da6c86a57058cc61578d0 Retrieved from.

  • Letourneau, E. J., Nietert, P. J., & Rheingold, A. A. (2016). Initial assessment of Stewards of Children program effects on child sexual abuse reporting rates in selected South Carolina counties. Child Maltreatment, 21(1), 74–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559515615232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liedtka, J., & Ogilvie, T. (2011). Designing for growth: A design thinking tool kit for managers. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay, A. C., Sussner, K. M., Kim, J., & Gortmaker, S. L. (2006). The role of parents in preventing childhood obesity. The Future of Children, 16(1), 169–186. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2006.0006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundahl, B. W., Nimer, J., & Parsons, B. (2006). Preventing child abuse: A meta-analysis of parent training programs. Research on Social Work Practice, 16(3), 251–262. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731505284391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lutzker, J. R., Guastaferro, K., & Whitaker, D. J. (2014). More work needed to protect children but promising trend data on exposure to violence. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(6), 512–514. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610388779.12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, W. A., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Haggerty, K. P., & Spoth, R. L. (2003). Reducing adolescents growth in substance use and delinquency: Randomized trial effects of parent training prevention intervention. Prevention Science, 4(3), 203–212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAlinden, A. M. (2006). ’Setting “em up”: Personal, familial and institutional grooming in the sexual abuse of children. Social and Legal Studies, 15(3), 339–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0964663906066613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noll, J. G. (2005). Does childhood sexual abuse set in motion a cycle of violence against women? What we know and what we need to learn. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(4), 455–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260504267756.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noll, J. G., Horowitz, L. A., Bonanno, G. A., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (2003). Revictimization and self-harm in females who experienced childhood sexual abuse results from a prospective study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(12), 1452–1471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503258035.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noll, J. G., Trickett, P. K., Long, J. D., Negriff, S., Susman, E. J., Shalev, I., & Putnam, F. W. (2017). Childhood sexual abuse and early timing of puberty. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(1), 65–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.09.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noll, J. G., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (2003). A prospective investigation of the impact of childhood sexual abuse on the development of sexuality. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(3), 575–586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.71.3.575.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Noll, J. G., Zeller, M. H., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (2007). Obesity risk for female victims of childhood sexual abuse: a prospective study. Pediatrics, 120(1), e61–7. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-3058.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Fuentes, G., Olfson, M., Villegas, L., Morcillo, C., Wang, S., & Blanco, C. (2013). Prevalence and correlates of child sexual abuse: A national study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(1), 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.05.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pulido, M. L., Dauber, S., Tully, B. A., Hamilton, P., Smith, M. J., & Freeman, K. (2015). Knowledge gains following a child sexual abuse prevention program among urban students: A cluster-randomized evaluation. American Journal of Public Health, 105(7), 1344–1350. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302594.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, F. W. (2003). Ten-year research update review: child sexual abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(3), 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.CHI.0000037029.04952.72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, J., & Webster-Stratton, C. (2001). The Incredible Years parent, teacher, and child intervention: Targeting multiple areas of risk for a youn child with pervasive conduct problems using a flexible, manualized treatment program. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 8(4), 377–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rheingold, A. A., Zajac, K., Chapman, J. E., Patton, M., de Arellano, M., Saunders, B., & Kilpatrick, D. (2015). Child sexual abuse prevention training for childcare professionals: An independent multi-site randomized controlled trail of Stewards of Children. Prevention Science, 16(3), 374–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0499-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, J., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Shanley, D. C., & Hawkins, R. (2018). Child sexual abuse prevention opportunities: Parenting, programs, and the reduction of risk. Child Maltreatment, 23(1), 96–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517729479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sedlak, A. J., Mettenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., Greene, A., & Li, S. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS – 4): Report to Congress. Washington, D.C. https://doi.org/10.1037/e659872010-001.

  • Self-Brown, S., Whitaker, D., Berliner, L., & Kolko, D. (2012). Disseminating child maltreatment interventions: Research on implementing evidence-based programs. Child Maltreatment, 17(1), 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559511436211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, H. N. (2000). Sexual assault of young children as reported to law enforcement: Victim, incident, and offender characteristics. National Center for Juvenile Justice: Washington, D.C.

  • Timmer, S., & Urquiza, A. (2014). Why we think we can make things better with evidence-based practice: Theoretical and developmental context. In Evidence-based approaches for the treatment of maltreated children: Considering core components and treatment effectiveness (Vol. 3, pp. 19–39). New York, NY: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7404-9.

  • Townsend, C., & Rheingold, A. A. (2013). Estimating a child sexual abuse prevalence rate for practitioners: A review of child sexual abuse prevalence studies. Darkness to Light: Charleston, SC. Retrieved from www.D2L.org/1in10.

  • U.S. Department of Health & Human Services [DHHS], Administration for Children Youth and Families, & Children’s Bureau. (2018). Child Maltreatment 2016. Retrieved from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment.%0AFederal.

  • Ulrich, C. M., & Ratcliffe, S. J. (2007). Hypothetical vignettes in empirical bioethics research. In L. Jacoby & L. A. Siminoff (eds.), Empirical methods for bioethics: A primer (pp. 161–181). Emerald Group Publishing Limited: Amsterdam/Boston.

  • Waterman, E. A., Small, M. L., Newman, S., & Steich, S. P. (2016). Increasing students’ familiarity with cocurricular experiences: A pilot trial. Journal of College Student Development, 57(7), 892–897. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2016.0086.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2010). Adapting The Incredible Years, an evidence-based parenting programme, for families involved in the child welfare system. Journal of Children’s Services, 5(1), 25–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wurtele, S. K., & Kenny, M. C. (2012). Preventing childhood sexual abuse: An ecological approach. In P. Goodyear-Brown (Ed.), Handbook of child sexual abuse: Identification, assessment, and treatment (1st ed., pp. 531–565). John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY.

  • Wurtele, S. K., Moreno, T., & Kenny, M. C. (2008). Evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention workshop for parents of young children. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 1(4), 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361520802505768.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

K. Guastaferro was supported in part by the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health under award number P50 DA039838 and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, through Grant UL1 TR000127 and TR002014. J. Reader was supported in part by the National Institute on Drug Abuse under award T32DA017629. J. Noll and J. Shanley were supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute on Child Health and Human Development under award P50HD089922. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Author Contributions

K.G. designed and executed the study, oversaw data analyses, and wrote the paper. K.M.Z. collaborated in the execution of the study and writing of manuscript. J.M.R. assisted with data analyses and wrote part of the results sections. J.S. collaborated in the design and writing of the manuscript. J.G.N. oversaw the design, execution, and data analysis as well as writing of the manuscript. K.G. conceptualized and designed the study, led analysis and interpretation of data, and drafted the manuscript. K.Z. assisted with analysis and interpretation of quantitative data and drafted sections of the manuscript. J.R. assisted with analysis and interpretation of qualitative data. J.S. was involved in revising the manuscript critically. J.N. oversaw the conceptualization, design, and analysis of this study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Methodology Center, The Pennsylvania State University, 418 Health and Human Development Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Kate Guastaferro

  2. Center for Healthy Children, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Kathleen M. Zadzora, Jenelle Shanley & Jennie G. Noll

  3. Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Kathleen M. Zadzora, Jonathan M. Reader & Jennie G. Noll

Authors
  1. Kate Guastaferro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kathleen M. Zadzora
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jonathan M. Reader
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jenelle Shanley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jennie G. Noll
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kate Guastaferro.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethics Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. The Pennsylvania State University Institutional Review Board provided approval for this study.

Additional information

Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Guastaferro, K., Zadzora, K.M., Reader, J.M. et al. A Parent-focused Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program: Development, Acceptability, and Feasibility. J Child Fam Stud 28, 1862–1877 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01410-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01410-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation