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Development and Validation of the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale: Measuring Effective Parenting Strategies

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Abstract

The current study aimed to develop and evaluate a measure of parenting knowledge, the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale (KOPSS); specifically, to establish the scales internal reliability, ensure a clinically appropriate length, provide a community sample for future comparison, demonstrate adequate test–retest reliability and convergent validity, and to compare the scale to dysfunctional discipline styles. A total of n = 865 parents were involved in the development and evaluation of the scale. In Study 1, data was collected from n = 229 parents and Rasch analyses revealed seven items did not fit the measurement model. Study 2 involved a further sample of community families (n = 346) and revealed the scale could be further shortened to 16 items. Study 3 revealed the scale has good test–retest reliability over a one-week period (r = .88, p < .001). Study 4 demonstrated convergent validity through a comparison to the Knowledge of Effective Parenting Scale (r = .583, p = .009). Study 5 utilised a sample of community families (n = 190), revealing the scale was negatively correlated with hostile and lax discipline (r = −.29, p < .001; r = −.15, p < .05). Lastly, Study 6 showed scores on the KOPSS significantly improved following clinic-based and Internet-based Behavioural Parent Training. The KOPSS was found to be a valid and reliable measure of parenting knowledge of effective parenting strategies, which can be used to evaluate knowledge acquisition in parenting programs, and test the role of knowledge in behaviour change.

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Funding

This study was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC Partnership Grant APP1056878 with Royal Far West 2013–2017).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia

    Jessica J. L. Kirkman

  2. School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia

    Mark R. Dadds & David J. Hawes

Authors
  1. Jessica J. L. Kirkman
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  2. Mark R. Dadds
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  3. David J. Hawes
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jessica J. L. Kirkman.

Ethics declarations

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Development and Validation of the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale: Measuring Effective Parenting Strategies

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the University of New South Wales Human Research Ethics Committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Conflict of Interest

J. J. L. K. declares that she has no conflict of interest. M. R. D. and D. J. H. own copyright and benefit financially from the sales of the clinic-based manualised parent training program referred to in study six.

Appendices

Appendix A

Extended Version of the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale

Please read each of the following questions carefully and circle the response that you consider would be the most effective action for a parent to take. Please circle only one response for each question.

  1. 1.

    If your child/children aren’t complying with your partner which should you do?

  1. a.

    Take over the disciplining, the children obviously aren’t listening to your partner

  2. b.

    Leave them to sort it out but back them up if they need assistance

  3. c.

    Whisper discreetly to your partner what they should do

  4. d.

    Watch from a distance and only step in after 10 min if they aren’t complying

  1. 2.

    Your child becomes badly behaved when you talk on the phone. The best strategy would be to:

  1. a.

    Teach the child rules and fun solo activities for ‘telephone time’

  2. b.

    Avoid using the phone until later at night when the child is asleep

  3. c.

    Use time-out as soon as the child starts to misbehave

  4. d.

    Explain to the child the importance of taking telephone calls to you

  1. 3.

    In terms of family rules,

  1. a.

    Each parent should enforce the rules they grew up with

  2. b.

    Whichever parent is home the most, should have more say over the rules enforced

  3. c.

    The more vocal and firm parent should be in charge of enforcing the rules

  4. d.

    Parents should try to enforce the same rules as each other

  1. 4.

    A child whines and cries when his parents explain why he can’t go outside. How should the parents react?

  1. a.

    Talk to their child about stranger danger

  2. b.

    Explain that it is a parent’s duty to make such decisions

  3. c.

    Stop what they are doing and let the child go outside to calm down

  4. d.

    Ignore the whining and crying

  1. 5.

    What should you do when your children are fighting?

  1. a.

    Discipline both of them, by separating them for a brief period of time

  2. b.

    Find out who started it, as this may become a reoccurring behavior

  3. c.

    Use a firm voice when explaining to the aggressor what they did was inappropriate

  4. d.

    Firstly, take time to speak to the child that was hurt and check they are ok

  1. 6.

    Which would be the best example of descriptive praise?

  1. a.

    “Good girl Mary”

  2. b.

    “See, you can be a good girl”

  3. c.

    “I’ll tell your father how you did such a good job”

  4. d.

    “I like the way you helped me put the dishes away”

  1. 7.

    A good rule to remember is:

  1. a.

    Catch a child doing something right and reward them

  2. b.

    Do not reward children with money or they will become greedy

  3. c.

    Rewards are not necessary; children know what correct behavior is

  4. d.

    Punishment is not helpful

  1. 8.

    Successful parenting requires:

  1. a.

    Keeping your own emotions under wraps

  2. b.

    A basic ability to manage one’s own moods and emotions

  3. c.

    Allowing your child to deal with parent’s moods and emotions

  4. d.

    Expressing a wide range of moods and emotions

  1. 9.

    You feel undermined by your partner when you try to discipline your child. What should you do?

  1. a.

    Stick up for yourself by confronting him/her as soon as it happens

  2. b.

    Help your child understand that sometimes parents disagree

  3. c.

    Give it time to resolve; minimise conflict with your partner

  4. d.

    Make a time to discuss it later when you are both calm

  1. 10.

    Which of the following should you do when you experience thoughts that trigger anger?

  1. a.

    Suppress or ignore the negative thoughts

  2. b.

    Vent the thoughts to a friend so they don’t build up

  3. c.

    Express them in whatever way helps (e.g. use a punching bag)

  4. d.

    Calmly challenge the thoughts

  1. 11.

    Two brothers fight constantly. What is probably happening?

  1. a.

    They have different temperaments and just don’t get along

  2. b.

    They are just at a stage they will grow out of

  3. c.

    They are bored and just using up energy

  4. d.

    Fighting gets them rewards such as parents’ attention

  1. 12.

    What is the best punishment for breaking the rules by playing football inside?

  1. a.

    Remove the child to a boring situation each time

  2. b.

    Make the child do extra chores that night

  3. c.

    Clearly express your disapproval

  4. d.

    Talk to the child about the importance of not playing football inside

  1. 13.

    To be your best possible parent, you should:

  1. a.

    Strive to be a better parent than your own parents

  2. b.

    Be less reliant or dependent on friends to help out

  3. c.

    Expect children will sometimes break rules and not do as they are asked

  4. d.

    Involve as many people as you can in the child’s upbringing

  1. 14.

    A father is on his way home after picking up his two children from school. He’s previously had the problem of being distracted by the children arguing noisily in the backseat. To prevent this from occurring it would be more effective for him to:

  1. a.

    Stop the car and explain to them the dangers of driving with distractions like children arguing

  2. b.

    Give them something interesting to do, for example, ask them about their day

  3. c.

    Raise his voice and firmly tell them to stop making the noise

  4. d.

    Threaten to take away the TV if they don’t stop arguing

  1. 15.

    Raising healthy and happy children means that parents should:

  1. a.

    Focus on the children but also spend time together alone

  2. b.

    Prioritise the children’s needs for the first several years

  3. c.

    Minimise parental hobbies and activities that take you away from the children

  4. d.

    Avoid letting the children know that parents want some time alone together

  1. 16.

    When disciplining a child, it is important that a parent:

  1. a.

    Makes sure their child understands exactly what they have done wrong

  2. b.

    Uses a loud, firm voice, so the child knows who is in charge

  3. c.

    Is consistent in their reaction to their child’s misbehavior

  4. d.

    Encourages their child to express their negative or angry feelings openly

  1. 17.

    A mother is about to take her two children Carmel (5 years) and Steven (8 years) round to visit her sister at her home. What should she do to make sure they behave best?

  1. a.

    Say “Now listen here you kids. You were really naughty last time we visited Alice’s place. So today be on your best behavior. Alright?”

  2. b.

    Say “Carmel and Steve, I want to talk to you about what’s going to happen today. We are going to visit Aunt Alice and I want you to remember your manners. OK”

  3. c.

    Say “I want you to remember three things when we go visiting today: do as you are told, use an inside voice, and come with me straight away when I say it’s time to leave. Is that fair? So what do you have to remember?”

  4. d.

    She does not need to do anything. At that age they shouldn’t need reminding, good parenting would have taught them that already

  1. 18.

    Which of the following will not lead you to be your best possible parent?

  1. a.

    Devote all your attention to your children

  2. b.

    Balance being a parent and your own person

  3. c.

    Be primarily responsible but seek out support when needed

  4. d.

    Take time-out from the children to look after yourself

  1. 19.

    A 4-year-old child has been placed in time-out and is yelling, screaming and banging on the wall. His father should:

  1. a.

    Wait for a pause in his complaints and remind him that he needs to be quiet before he can come out

  2. b.

    Leave him in there for half an hour, to allow him to calm down

  3. c.

    Ignore any complaints and wait until he has been quiet for a set time before letting him out

  4. d.

    Conclude time-out isn’t working, then use a different punishment like loss of privileges

  1. 20.

    Its 5 min before dinnertime and a child is throwing a tantrum for a cookie. What should mum do?

  1. a.

    Get the child’s attention, tell them to stop screaming, and remind them of the group rule (about no sweets before dinner). Ignore further protests and don’t give a cookie

  2. b.

    Give the child a healthy alternative snack to keep the child happy until dinner

  3. c.

    Give the child just one cookie in case they really are hungry, to tie them over till dinner

  4. d.

    Use this as an opportunity to talk to her child about eating too much sugar and the dangers of getting fat, tooth decay and spoiling their appetite for dinner

  1. 21.

    When you reward a child, which should you do:

  1. a.

    Express emotion, and reward them while they are behaving well

  2. b.

    Remain calm and wait until they have finished behaving well

  3. c.

    Express emotion but wait until after the good behavior has finished

  4. d.

    Remain calm, and reward them while they are behaving well

  1. 22.

    During a shopping trip in the grocery store Jacob asks his mother to buy him a toy. She says not today. He protests, pleading with her to buy the toy. She says no again and he starts to cry then scream loudly throwing himself on the floor. Jacob is more likely to throw a tantrum in the future when shopping with his mother if she:

  1. a.

    Buys the toy for him, and says “just this once”

  2. b.

    Tells him to stop making the noise because it is annoying her

  3. c.

    Ignores the behavior completely and walks away from him

  4. d.

    Reminds him of the rules and refuses to give in to his demands

  1. 23.

    A 3-year-old pulls the kitten’s tail for the third time in the morning. What would be the most effective response?

  1. a.

    Ignore the behavior, giving it attention will encourage the child

  2. b.

    Remove the child from the kitten and place him/her in time-out

  3. c.

    Ask the child how they would feel if someone kept pulling their arm hard

  4. d.

    Explain to the child why it is important not to hurt animals

  1. 24.

    A child constantly dawdles and is non-compliant while getting ready in the morning. What should a parent do?

  1. a.

    Get the child ready yourself until he or she is older

  2. b.

    Set up a clear routine with inbuilt rewards and consequences

  3. c.

    Get up earlier in the morning to allow everyone more time

  4. d.

    Teach the child by leaving on time even if he or she is still in pyjamas

  1. 25.

    When should a child be permitted to leave time-out?

  1. a.

    After a set time period

  2. b.

    When he or she is ready to apologise

  3. c.

    After he or she is upset enough to not do it again

  4. d.

    After a set time and he or she is calm and in control

  1. 26.

    Successful parenting is not dependent upon which of the following:

  1. a.

    Feeling in control of strong emotions such as anger

  2. b.

    Feeling confident dealing with everyday problems

  3. c.

    Ignoring your own needs for the first several years

  4. d.

    Being able to cope with feelings of worry or a depressed mood

  1. 27.

    Mrs Thomas found out that spanking her 7-year-old son Bob did not seem to stop him from using “naughty” words. A friend suggested that rather than spanking him, she should send him to be by himself. He should be sent:

  1. a.

    To his bedroom

  2. b.

    To a room within sight of his parents

  3. c.

    To a room as uninteresting as possible

  4. d.

    Outside to the backyard

  1. 28.

    A child behaves very badly during a shopping trip. What should the parent do afterwards when they get home?

  1. a.

    Avoid escalating conflict by not bringing it up

  2. b.

    Review how things went and implement consequences

  3. c.

    Avoid taking the child shopping again

  4. d.

    Return to the shop and try again

  1. 29.

    Your children fight constantly during car trips. What should you do?

  1. a.

    Avoid as many car trips as possible, especially long trips

  2. b.

    Identify the main culprit and provide a serious consequence to that child

  3. c.

    Reward the child who is behaving the best with descriptive praise

  4. d.

    Provide clear rules, consequences and interesting activities during the trip

  1. 30.

    A 6-year-old has refused to put her toys away when asked to. When mum repeated the instruction, the child started screaming and throwing her toys. What should mum do?

  1. a.

    Give her a gentle smack on the bottom, and let her know there will be no dessert tonight

  2. b.

    Pack the toys away but let her child know she will not be able to play with them for the rest of the week

  3. c.

    Give her a cuddle to help settle her down and then assist with packing the toys away

  4. d.

    Take her to time-out and wait until she has calmed down before allowing her out

  1. 31.

    Damian, a 7-year-old, has just made a building out of blocks while his mother was on the phone. What would be the best way to make sure he does this again next time she is on the phone?

  1. a.

    Say “thank you for playing by yourself, show me what you’ve made”

  2. b.

    Pat him on the back and say “good boy Damian”

  3. c.

    Say nothing, don’t interrupt him, allow him to continue playing

  4. d.

    Only respond if he independently approaches you

  1. 32.

    If you want your child to say “please” and “thank you”, it is probably most important to:

  1. a.

    Give them time, as children will learn at their own pace

  2. b.

    Explain in length why good manners are important

  3. c.

    Remember to compliment them when they remember to say them

  4. d.

    Set a good example and use manners yourself

  1. 33.

    If you want your child to develop proper study habits, you should:

  1. a.

    Remove distractions like the TV from the house

  2. b.

    Reward him when he does study

  3. c.

    Encourage him to do his homework

  4. d.

    Speak at length with your child about the benefits of school

This measure of parenting knowledge is in the public domain, and may be used for clinical and research purposes.

Appendix B

Brief Version of the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale

Please read each of the following questions carefully and circle the response that you consider would be the most effective action for a parent to take. Please circle only one response for each question.

  1. 1.

    A good rule to remember is:

  1. a.

    Catch a child doing something right and reward them

  2. b.

    Do not reward children with money or they will become greedy

  3. c.

    Rewards are not necessary; children know what correct behavior is

  4. d.

    Punishment is not helpful

  1. 2.

    If you want your child to develop proper study habits, you should:

  1. a.

    Remove distractions like the TV from the house

  2. b.

    Reward your child when they do study

  3. c.

    Give your child frequent prompts to do homework

  4. d.

    Speak at length with your child about the benefits of school

  1. 3.

    If you want your child to say “please” and “thank you”, it is probably most important to:

  1. a.

    Give them time, as children will learn at their own pace

  2. b.

    Explain in length why good manners are important

  3. c.

    Remember to compliment them when they remember to say them

  4. d.

    Set a good example and use manners yourself

  1. 4.

    Damian, a 7-year-old, has just made a building out of blocks while his mother was on the phone. What would be the best way to make sure he does this again next time she is on the phone?

  1. a.

    Say “thank you for playing by yourself, show me what you’ve made”

  2. b.

    Pat him on the back and say “good boy Damian”

  3. c.

    Say nothing, don’t interrupt him, allow him to continue playing

  4. d.

    Only respond if he independently approaches you

  1. 5.

    A 6-year-old has refused to put her toys away when asked to. When mum repeated the instruction, the child started screaming and throwing her toys. What should mum do?

  1. a.

    Give her a gentle smack on the bottom, and let her know there will be no dessert tonight

  2. b.

    Pack the toys away but let her child know she will not be able to play with them for the rest of the week

  3. c.

    Give her a cuddle to help settle her down and then assist with packing the toys away

  4. d.

    Take her to time-out and wait until she has calmed down before allowing her out

  1. 6.

    Its 5 min before dinnertime and a child is throwing a tantrum for a cookie. What should mum do?

  1. a.

    Get the child’s attention, tell them to stop screaming, and remind them of the group rule (about no sweets before dinner). Ignore further protests and don’t give a cookie

  2. b.

    Give the child a healthy alternative snack to keep the child happy until dinner

  3. c.

    Give the child just one cookie in case they really are hungry, to tie them over till dinner

  4. d.

    Use this as an opportunity to talk to her child about eating too much sugar and the dangers of getting fat, tooth decay and spoiling their appetite for dinner

  1. 7.

    A child whines and cries when his parents explain why he can’t go outside. How should the parents react?

  1. a.

    Talk to their child about stranger danger

  2. b.

    Explain that it is a parent’s duty to make such decisions

  3. c.

    Stop what they are doing and let the child go outside to calm down

  4. d.

    Ignore the whining and crying

  1. 8.

    What is the best punishment for breaking the rules by playing football inside?

  1. a.

    Remove the child to a boring situation each time

  2. b.

    Make the child do extra chores that night

  3. c.

    Clearly express your disapproval

  4. d.

    Talk to the child about the importance of not playing football inside

  1. 9.

    A father is on his way home after picking up his two children from school. He’s previously had the problem of being distracted by the children arguing noisily in the backseat. To prevent this from occurring it would be more effective for him to:

  1. a.

    Stop the car and explain to them the dangers of driving with distractions like children arguing

  2. b.

    Give them something interesting to do, for example, ask them about their day

  3. c.

    Raise his voice and firmly tell them to stop making the noise

  4. d.

    Threaten to take away the TV if they don’t stop arguing

  1. 10.

    A mother is about to take her two children Carmel (5 years) and Steven (8 years) round to visit her sister at her home. What should she do to make sure they behave best?

  1. a.

    Say “Now listen here you kids. You were really naughty last time we visited Alice’s place. So today be on your best behavior. Alright?”

  2. b.

    Say “Carmel and Steve, I want to talk to you about what’s going to happen today. We are going to visit Aunt Alice and I want you to remember your manners. OK”

  3. c.

    Say “I want you to remember three things when we go visiting today: do as you are told, use an inside voice, and come with me straight away when I say it’s time to leave. Is that fair? So what do you have to remember?”

  4. d.

    She does not need to do anything. At that age they shouldn’t need reminding, good parenting would have taught them that already

  1. 11.

    Two brothers fight constantly. What is probably happening?

  1. a.

    They have different temperaments and just don’t get along

  2. b.

    They are just at a stage they will grow out of

  3. c.

    They are bored and just using up energy

  4. d.

    Fighting gets them rewards such as parents’ attention

  1. 12.

    Your child becomes badly behaved when you talk on the phone. The best strategy would be to:

  1. a.

    Teach the child rules and fun solo activities for ‘telephone time’

  2. b.

    Avoid using the phone until later at night when the child is asleep

  3. c.

    Use time-out as soon as the child starts to misbehave

  4. d.

    Explain to the child the importance of taking telephone calls to you

  1. 13.

    If your child/children aren’t complying with your partner which should you do?

  1. a.

    Take over the disciplining, the children obviously aren’t listening to your partner

  2. b.

    Leave them to sort it out but back them up if they need assistance

  3. c.

    Whisper discreetly to your partner what they should do

  4. d.

    Watch from a distance and only step in after 10 min if they aren’t complying

  1. 14.

    To be your best possible parent, you should:

  1. a.

    Strive to be a better parent than your own parents

  2. b.

    Be less reliant or dependent on friends to help out

  3. c.

    Expect children will sometimes break rules and not do as they are asked

  4. d.

    Involve as many people as you can in the child’s upbringing

  1. 15.

    Successful parenting requires:

  1. a.

    Keeping your own emotions under wraps

  2. b.

    A basic ability to manage one’s own moods and emotions

  3. c.

    Allowing your child to deal with parent’s moods and emotions

  4. d.

    Expressing a wide range of moods and emotions

  1. 16.

    Successful parenting is not dependent upon which of the following:

  1. a.

    Feeling in control of strong emotions such as anger

  2. b.

    Feeling confident dealing with everyday problems

  3. c.

    Ignoring your own needs for the first several years

  4. d.

    Being able to cope with feelings of worry or a depressed mood

This measure of parenting knowledge is in the public domain, and may be used for clinical and research purposes.

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Kirkman, J.J.L., Dadds, M.R. & Hawes, D.J. Development and Validation of the Knowledge of Parenting Strategies Scale: Measuring Effective Parenting Strategies. J Child Fam Stud 27, 3200–3217 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1165-6

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