Skip to main content

The Family Stress Model as it Applies to Custodial Grandfamilies: A Cross Validation

Journal of Child and Family Studies volume 27, pages 505–521 (2018)Cite this article

Abstract

There is scant research on how the parenting practices of custodial grandmothers affect the psychological adjustment of grandchildren in their care. Yet, the findings from a handful of prior studies suggest the relevance of the Family Stress Model (FSM) to these caregivers. The present study further tested the FSM with baseline data from 343 custodial grandmothers (Mage = 58.5 years) enrolled in a clinical trial of the efficacy of interventions for improving the well-being of their families. Not only was this “help-seeking” sample atypical of prior FSM studies, but also unique to the present study was our addition of multiple parenting practices, self-reported and clinical ratings of grandmothers’ distress, and reports of grandchildren’s internalizing and externalizing difficulties from grandchildren and grandmothers. Mplus 7.31 was used to test a model where the effect of grandmother distress on grandchildren’s internalizing and externalizing difficulties was hypothesized to be indirect through five distinct parenting practices. The findings regarding both the measurement and structural models fit the observed data well, and invariance was largely found across grandchildren’s gender and age (4–7 vs. 8–12). Although grandchildren’s self-reported internalizing and externalizing difficulties were unrelated to grandmothers’ distress and parenting practices, the grandmothers’ reports of these outcomes were generally related to their own distress and parenting practices as hypothesized. However, considerable variation was found across the five parenting practices in terms of their relationships to the other FSM constructs. We conclude that data from multiple informants and measures of assorted parenting practices are essential to future research and practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (2006). As others see us: Clinical and research implications of cross-informant correlations for psychopathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 94–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, M. A. (2008). Economic disadvantage in complex family systems: Expansion of family stress models. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11, 145–161.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bengtson, V. L., & Schrader, S. S. (1982). Parent–child relations. Research Instruments in Social Gerontology, 2, 115–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. J., Jemmott, L. S., Outlaw, F. H., Wilson, G., Howard, M., & Curtis, S. (2000). African American grandmothers’ perceptions of caregiver concerns associated with rearing adolescent grandchildren. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 14, 73–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruss, G. S., Gruenberg, A. M., Goldstein, R. D., & Barber, J. P. (1994). Hamilton anxiety rating scale interview guide: Joint interview and test–rested methods for interrater reliability. Psychiatry Research, 53, 191–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait -multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. B. (1987). Parent observation and report of child symptoms. Behavioral Assessment, 9, 97–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conger, K. J., Rueter, M. A., & Conger, R. D. (2000). The role of economic pressure in the lives of parents and their adolescents: The family stress model. In L. J. Crockett & R. K. Silbereisen (Eds.), Negotiating adolescence in times of social change (pp. 201–223). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conley, C. S., Caldwell, M. S., Flynn, M., Dupre, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2004). Parenting and mental health. In M. Hoghughi & N. Long (Eds.), Handbook of parenting: Theory and research for practice (pp. 276–285). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, C., Apetroaia, A., Murray, L., & Cooper, P. (2013). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics of mothers with anxiety disorders in the context of child anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 26–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Los Reyes, A., Augenstein, T. M., Wang, M., Thomas, S. A., Drabick, D., Burgers, D. E., & Rabinowitz, J. (2015). The validity of the multi-informant approach to assessing child and adolescent mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 141, 858–900.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • De Los Reyes, A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: A critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 483–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Los Reyes, A., Salas, S., Menzer, M., & Daruwala, S. (2013). Criterion validity of interpreting scores from multi-informant statistical interactions as measures of informant discrepancies in psychological assessments of children and adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 25, 509–519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietz, L. J., Birmaher, B., Williamson, D. E., Silk, J. S., Dahl, R. E., Axelson, D. A., & Ryan, N. D. (2008). Mother–child interactions in depressed children and children at high risk and low risk for future depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 574–582.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dolbin-MacNab, M. L. (2006). Just like raising your own? Grandmothers’ perceptions of parenting a second time around. Family Relations, 55, 564–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunifon, R. (2013). The influence of grandparents on the lives of children and adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 55–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eddy, M. J., Dishion, T. J., & Stoolmiller, M. (1999). The analysis of intervention change in children and families: Methodological and conceptual issues embedded in intervention studies. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 53–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elgar, F. J., Mills, R. S., McGrath, P. J., Waschbusch, D. A., & Brownridge, D. A. (2007). Maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and child maladjustment: The mediating role of parental behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 943–955.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C. K. (2013). Analyzing structural equation models with missing data. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course. 2nd ed. (pp. 493–519). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finney, S. J., & DiStefano, C. (2013). Nonnormal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), A second course in structural equation modeling. 2nd ed. (pp. 439–492). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garland, A. F., Hawley, K. M., Brookman-Frazee, L., & Hurlburt, M. S. (2008). Identifying common elements of evidenced-based psychosocial treatments for children’s disruptive. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5, 505–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, C. C. (2012). Caregiving grandmothers and their grandchildren: Well-being nine years later. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 648–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1337–1345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, M. (1959). The assessment of anxiety states by rating. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 32, 50–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, S., Smith, G., & Hunsley, J. (2011). Scientific foundations of clinical assessment. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayslip, B., Fruhauf, C., & Dolbin-MacNab, M. (2017). Grandparents raising grandchildren: What have we learned over the past decade? The Gerontologist, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx124

  • Hayslip, B., & Kaminski, P. L. (2005). Grandparents raising their grandchildren: A review of the literature and suggestions for practice. The Gerontologist, 45, 262–269.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayslip, B., & Kaminski, P. L. (2008). Parenting the custodial grandchild: Implications for clinical practice. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayslip, B., Shore, R. J., Henderson, C. E., & Lambert, P. L. (1998). Custodial grandparenting and grandchildren with problems: Their impact on role satisfaction and role meaning. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 53B, S164–S174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Salmen, C., Telcher, M., & Elbert, T. (2016). Harsh discipline relates to internalizing problems and cognitive functioning: Findings from a cross-sectional study with school children in Tanzania. Psychiatry, 16, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0828-3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaminski, J. W., Valle, L. A., Filene, J. H., & Boyle, C. L. (2008). A meta-analytic review of components associated with parent training program effectiveness. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 567–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E., & Whitley, M. K. (2003). Treatment of parental stress to enhance therapeutic change among children referred for aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 504–515.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, S. J., & Whitley, D. (2003). Psychological distress and physical health problems in grandparents raising grandchildren: Development of an empirically based intervention model. In B. Hayslip & J. Patrick (Eds.), Working with custodial grandparents (pp. 127–144). New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, S. J., Whitley, D. M., & Campos, P. E. (2011). Behavior problems in children raised by grandmothers: The role of caregiver distress, family resources, and the home environment. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 2138–2145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotchick, B. A., & Forehand, R. (2002). Putting parenting in perspective: A discussion of the contextual factors that shape parenting practices. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11, 255–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, J. N., & Sanders, M. R. (2014). A randomized controlled trial evaluating a parenting program designed specifically for grandparents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 52, 35–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuijpers, R., Otten, R., Vermulst, A., Pez, O., Bitfoi, A., Carta, M., Goelitz, D., Keyes, K., Koc, C., Lesinskiene, S., Mihova, Z., Engels, R., & Kovess, V. (2016). Reliability, factor structure, and measurement invariance of the dominic interactive across European Countries: Cross-country utility of a child mental health self-report. Psychological Assessment, 28, 539–548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landers-Potts, M. A., Wickrama, K. A., Simons, L. G., Cutrona, C., Gibbons, F. X., Simons, R. L., & Conger, R. (2015). An extension and moderational analysis of the family stress model focusing on African American adolescents. Family Relations, 64, 233–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M. P., Moss, M., Kleban, M. H., Glicksman, A., & Rovine, M. (1991). A two-factor model of caregiving appraisal and psychological well-being. Journal of Gerontology, 46, P181–P189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lochman, J. E., Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1995). Screening of child behavior problems for prevention programs at school entry. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 549–559.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, L. M., & Prinz, R. J. (2002). Measurement of parental discipline and nurturance. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 805–929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E. O., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561–592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M. C., Weis, R., O’Hare, E., & Rubin, E. (1999). Development and initial validation of the parent behavior inventory. Psychological Assessment, 11, 534–545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D., Krull, J., & Lockwood, C. (2000). Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prevention Science: The Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research, 1, 173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKee, L., Colletti, C., Rakov, A., Jones, D., & Forehand (2008). Parenting and child externalizing behaviors: Are the associations specific or diffuse? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13, 201–215.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, C. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 155–172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minkler, M., Fuller-Thomson, E., Miller, D., & Driver, D. (1997). Depression in grandparents raising grandchildren: Results of a national longitudinal study. Archives of Family Medicine, 6, 445–452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, S. A., & Asberg, M. (1979). A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 382–389.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus User’s Guide. (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neger, E. N. (2015). Do discipline style and parenting self-efficacy interact to predict observed child behavior? Outcomes from a representative sample of mothers with young children. (Master’s thesis). http://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/3213.

  • Norman, S. B., Hami, C. S., Means‐Christensen, A. J., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Development and validation of an overall anxiety severity and impairment scale (OASIS). Depression and Anxiety, 23(4), 245–249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2000). Expanding the framework of internal and external validity in quantitative research. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Educational Research (AAER), Ponte Vedra, FL.

  • Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I., Mullan, J., Semple, S., & Skaff, M. (1990). Caregiving and the stress process: An overview of concepts and their measures. The Gerontologist, 30, 583–594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinson-Milburn, N. M., Fabian, E. S., Schlossberg, N. K., & Pyle, M. (1996). Grandparents raising grandchildren. Journal of Counseling and Development, 74, 548–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Renk, K. (2005). Cross-informant ratings of the behavior of children and adolescents: The “Gold Standard”. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 14, 457–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H, Burgess, K. (2002). Parents of aggressive and withdrawn children. In: M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (2nd ed., vol. 1, pp. 383–418). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savalei, V. and Rhemtulla, M. (2011). Some explorations of the local and global measures of missing information. Paper presented at the 76th annual and the 17th international meeting of the Psychometric Society. Hong Kong.

  • Savalei, V., & Rhemtulla, M. (2012). On obtaining estimates of the fraction of missing information from full information maximum likelihood. Structural Equation Modeling, 19, 477–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Davies, M., Piacentini, J., Schwab-Stone, M. E., Lahey, B. B., Bourdon, K., Jensen, P. S., Bird, H. R., Canino, G., & Regier, D. A. (1996). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3 (DISC-2.3): Description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA Study. Methods for the epidemiology of child and adolescent mental disorders study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 865–877.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood problem behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417–439.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. C., Cichy, K., & Montoro-Rodriguez, J. (2015a). Impact of coping resources on the well-being of custodial grandmothers and grandchildren. Family Relations, 64, 378–392.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. C., & Dolbin-Macnab, M. (2012). A two factor model of outcomes for custodial grandmothers and grandchildren. In B. Hayslip & G. Smith (Eds.), Resilient grandparent caregivers: A strengths-based perspective. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. C., & Hancock, G. R. (2010). Custodial grandmother–grandfather dyads: Pathways among marital distress, grandparent dysphoria, and grandchild adjustment. Family Relations, 59, 43–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. C., Merchant, W., Hayslip, B., & Hancock, G. R. (2015b). Measuring the parenting practices of custodial grandmothers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 3676–3689.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. C., & Palmieri, P. A. (2007). Risk for psychological difficulties in children raised by custodial grandparents. Psychiatric Services, 58, 1303–1310.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. C., Palmieri, P. A., Hancock, G. R., & Richardson, R. A. (2008). Custodial grandmothers’ psychological distress, dysfunctional parenting, and grandchildren’s adjustment. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 67, 327–367.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Strawbridge, W., Wallhagen, M., Shema, S., & Kaplan, G. (1997). New burdens or more of the same? Comparing adult grandparent, spouse, and adult-child caregivers. The Gerontologist, 17, 505–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szinovacz, M. E., DeViney, S., & Atkinson, M. P. (1999). Effects of surrogate parenting on grandparents’ well-being. Journal of Gerontology, 54, 302–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toth, S. L., & Cicchettic, D. (1996). Patterns of relatedness, depressive symptomatology, and perceived competence in maltreated children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 32–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Coresident grandparents and their grandchildren: 2012: Allegany County, N.Y. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2014/demo/p20-576.pdf?eml=gd. Accessed 22 Oct 2014.

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2014). 10 Percent of grandparents live with a grandchild, Census Bureau reports: Allegany County, N.Y. http://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2014/cb14-194.html. Accessed 22 Oct 2014.

  • Valla, J. P., Bergeron, L., & Smolla, N. (2000). The Dominic-R: A pictorial interview for 6- to 11-year-old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 85–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, R. M., Liu, Y., Nair, R. L., & Tein, J. (2015). Longitudinal and integrative tests of family stress model effects on Mexican origin adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 51, 649–662.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. B. W. (1988). Structured Interview Guide for the Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale (SIGMA). Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.

  • Williamson, J., Softas-Nall, B., & Miller, J. (2003). Grandchildren: An exploration of their experiences and emotions. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 11, 23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, Y., Pasalich, D., Oberth, C., McMahon, R., & Pinderhughes, E. (2017). Capturing parenting as a multimensional and dynamic construct with a person-oriented approach. Prevention Science, 18, 281–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This study was funded by the National Institute of Nursing Research (R01NR012256).

Authors Contributions

G.S. designed and executed the study, conducted the data analyses, and wrote the paper. B.H. co-participated in the design and execution of the study and collaborated in writing the paper. G.H. contributed to, and consulted on, matters regarding statistical analyses. W.H. collaborated in conducting the analyses, interpreting the findings, and in editing the final manuscript. J.M.R. was involved with execution of the study (??). F.S. participated in the design and execution of the study and collaborated in writing the paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Kent State University, 144 Nixson Hall, Kent, OH, 44240, USA

    Gregory C. Smith

  2. University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

    Bert Hayslip Jr

  3. University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

    Gregory R. Hancock

  4. The University of Northern Colorado, Greenley, CO, USA

    William Merchant

  5. University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC, USA

    Julian Montoro-Rodriguez

  6. University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Frederick Strieder

Authors
  1. Gregory C. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bert Hayslip Jr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gregory R. Hancock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. William Merchant
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Julian Montoro-Rodriguez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Frederick Strieder
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gregory C. Smith.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Kent State University provided the IRB approval for the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Smith, G.C., Hayslip , B., Hancock, G.R. et al. The Family Stress Model as it Applies to Custodial Grandfamilies: A Cross Validation. J Child Fam Stud 27, 505–521 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0896-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0896-0

Keywords

  • Custodial grandmothers
  • Custodial grandchildren
  • Parenting practices
  • Family stress model
  • Psychological adjustment