Skip to main content

Children’s Post-Divorce Living Arrangements and School Engagement: Financial Resources, Parent–Child Relationship, Selectivity and Stress

Journal of Child and Family Studies volume 26, pages 3425–3438 (2017)Cite this article

Abstract

Children’s post-divorce living arrangements have become increasingly heterogeneous the past decades, because of the rise in shared residence and stepfamily formation. This study investigates how post-divorce living arrangements (i.e. the combination between residential arrangement and stepparent presence) are related to children’s school engagement. The focus is put on different explanations of the relation between living arrangements and school engagement, namely financial resources, parent–child relationship, selectivity and stress. Structural equation models are performed on a sample of children with divorced parents from the Leuven Adolescent and Family Study data 2008–2011 (n = 1630). First, the results show that stepfamilies have higher financial resources than single-parent families, but these higher financial resources are not directly related to children’s school engagement. Second, parent–child relationship is an important mediator between post-divorce living arrangements and school engagement. The results suggest that shared residence is related to a better fatherchild relationship and in this manner improves school engagement. The relation between stepparent presence and the parent–child relationship is less straightforward, and the findings suggest that the combination of residential arrangement, stepfather and stepmother presence should be taken into account. Third, children’s sociodemographic characteristics, time since divorce and level of pre-divorce conflict function as selection mechanisms, as they are related to both post-divorce living arrangements and children’s school engagement. Finally, the findings indicate that the complexity of multiple part-time residential figures is stressful to children. This may partially counterbalance the benefits of such systems, via the better parent–child relationship and the higher financial resources.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Aassve, A., Betti, G., Mazzuco, S., & Mencarini, L. (2007). Marital disruption and economic well-being: A comparative analysis. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (Statistics in Society), 170(3), 781–799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amato, P. (2010). Research on divorce: Continuing trends and new developments. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 650–666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amato, P., & Gilbreth, J. G. (1999). Nonresident fathers and children’s well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(3), 557–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 369–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques (pp. 243–278). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Artis, J. E. (2007). Maternal cohabitation and child well-being among kindergarten children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(1), 222–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauserman, R. (2002). Child adjustment in joint-custody versus sole-custody arrangements: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Family Psychology, 6(2), 91–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bender, W. N. (1994). Joint custody: The option of choice. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 21(3–4), 115–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernardi, F., & Radl, J. (2014). The long-term consequences of parental divorce for children’s educational attainment. Demographic Research, 30(61), 1653–1680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchi, S. M., Subaiya, L., & Kahn, J. R. (1999). The gender gap in the economic well-being of nonresident fathers and custodial mothers. Demography, 36(2), 195–203.

  • Bjarnason, T., & Arnarsson, A. M. (2011). Joint physical custody and communication with parents: A cross-national study of children in 36 Western countries. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 42(6), 871–890.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., Klebanov, P., & Liaw, F. (1995). The learning, physical, and emotional environment of the home in the context of poverty: The infant health and development program. Children and Youth Services Review, 17(1/2), 251–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. (2010). Marriage and child well-being: Research and policy perspectives. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72(5), 1059–1077.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. London: Paperback Spon Pres.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21(2), 230–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brutsaert, H. (1993). School, gezin en welbevinden: Zesdeklassers en hun sociale omgeving. Leuven: Garant.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, C. (1992). Adolescents and their families after divorce: Three residential arrangements compared. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 2(3), 261–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavanagh, S., & Fomby, P. (2012). Family instability, school context, and the academic careers of adolescents. Sociology of Education, 85(1), 81–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, M., Ganong, L., & Fine, M. (2000). Reinvestigating remarriage: Another decade of progress. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62(4), 1288–1307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 685–704.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Crosbie-Burnett, M. (1991). Impact of joint versus sole custody and quality of co-parental relationship on adjustment of adolescents in remarried families. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 9(4), 439–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dewilde, C., & Uunk, W. (2008). Remarriage as a way to overcome the financial consequences of divorce: A test of the economic need hypothesis for European women. European Sociological Review, 24(3), 393–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donnelly, D., & Finkelhor, D. (1992). Does equality in custody arrangement improve the parent-child relationship? Journal of Marriage and Family, 54(4), 837–845.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donnelly, D., & Finkelhor, D. (1993). Who has joint custody? Class differences in the determination of custody arrangements. Family Relations, 42(1), 57–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, J., Cheng, H., O’Connor, T. G., & Bridges, L. (2004). Children’s perspectives on their relationships with their nonresident fathers: Influences, outcomes and implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(3), 553–566.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C., & Bandalos, D. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(3), 430–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredricks, J. A., & McColskey, W. (2012). The measurement of student engagement: A comparative analysis of various methods and student self-report instruments. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 763–782). New York, NY: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children’s perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21(6), 1016–1024.

  • Greif, J., & Simring, S. (1982). Remarriage and joint custody. Conciliation Courts Review, 20(1), 9–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groenez, S. (2010). Onderwijsexpansie en -democratisering in Vlaanderen. Tijdschrift Voor Sociologie, 31(3–4), 199–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gruman, D. H., Harachi, T. W., Abbott, R. D., Catalano, R. F., & Fleming, C. B. (2008). Longitudinal effects of student mobility on three dimensions of elementary school engagement. Child Development, 79(6), 1833–1852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grych, J., & Fincham, F. (1993). Children’s appraisals of marital conflict: Initial investigations of the cognitive-contextual framework. Child Development, 64(1), 215–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hakvoort, E. M., Bos, H. M. W., van Balen, F., & Hermanns, J. M. A. (2010). Family relationships and the psychosocial adjustment of school-aged children in intact families. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 171(2), 182–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Havermans, N., Botterman, S., & Matthijs, K. (2014). Family resources as mediators in the relation between divorce and children’s school engagement. The Social Science Journal, 51(4), 564–579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Havermans, N., Vanassche, S., & Matthijs, K. (2015). Methodological challenges of including children in family research: Measurement equivalence, selection bias and social desirability. Child Indicators Research, 8(4), 975–997.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heard, H. E. (2007). The family structure trajectory and adolescent school performance: Differential effects by race and ethnicity. Journal of Family Issues, 28(3), 319–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henretta, J. C., Wolf, D. A., Van Voorhis, M. F., & Soldo, B. J. (2012). Family structure and the reproduction of inequality: Parents’ contribution to children’s college costs. Social Science Research, 41(4), 876–887.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hetherington, E. M., & Kelly, J. (2002). For better or for worse: Divorce reconsidered. New York, NY: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, A.-M. (2009). Mobile children: Small captives of large structures? Children & Society, 23(2), 123–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juby, H., Billette, J.-M., Laplante, B., & Le Bourdais, C. (2007). Nonresident fathers and children: Parents’ new unions and frequency of contact. Journal of Family Issues, 28(9), 1220–1245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juby, H., Le Bourdais, C., & Marcil-Graton, N. (2005). Sharing roles, sharing custody? Couples’ characteristics and children’s living arrangements at separation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(1), 157–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J., & Emery, R. (2003). Children’s adjustment following divorce: Risk and resilience perspectives. Family Relations, 52(4), 352–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, V., & Sobolewski, J. M. (2006). Nonresident fathers’ contributions to adolescent well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 68(3), 537–557.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, M., Tschann, J. M., Johnston, J. R., & Wallerstein, J. S. (1989). Children’s adjustment in joint and sole physical custody families. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 430–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liem, G. A. D., & Martin, A. J. (2011). Peer relationships and adolescents’ academic and non-academic outcomes: Same-sex and opposite-sex peer effects and the mediating role of school engagement. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 183–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lodewijckx, E. (2005). Kinderen en scheiding bij hun ouders in het Vlaamse Gewest. Een analyse op basis van Rijksregistergegevens. Brussels: Centrum voor Bevolkings- en Gezinsstudies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, W. D., & Brown, S. (2006). Children’s economic well-being in married and cohabiting parent families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(2), 345–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, C. R. J., & Forgatch, M. S. (2002). Adjusting to change: Linking family structure transitions with parenting and boys’ adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(2), 107–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLanahan, S. S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps? Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mo, Y., & Singh, K. (2008). Parents’ relationships and involvement: Effects on students’ school engagement and performance. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 31(10), 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, C. (2009). Parent and teacher relationships as predictors of school engagement and functioning among low-income urban youth. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(3), 376–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthen, L., & Muthen, B. (2007). Mplus user’s guide. 5th. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, L. (2011). Shared parenting after divorce: A review of shared residential parenting research. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 52(8), 586–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, C., & Mclanahan, S. S. (2007). Partnership instability and child well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(4), 1065–1083.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parcel, T. L., Dufur, M. J., & Cornell Zito, R. (2010). Capital at home and at school: A review and synthesis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(4), 828–846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prskawetz, A., Vikat, A., Philipov, D., & Engelhardt, H. (2003). Pathways to stepfamily formation in Europe. Demographic Research, 8(5), 107–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raufelder, D., Kittler, F., Braun, S. R., Latsch, A., Wilkinson, R. P., & Hoferichter, F. (2013). The interplay of perceived stress, self-determination and school engagement in adolescence. School Psychology International, 35(4), 405–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, J. (1991). Legal custody arrangements and children’s economic welfare. American Journal of Sociology, 96(4), 895–929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigle-Rushton, W., Lyngstad, T. H., Andersen, P. L., & Kravdal, Ø. (2014). Proceed with caution? Parents’ union dissolution and children’s educational achievement. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(1), 161–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons-Morton, B., & Chen, R. (2009). Peer and parent influences on school engagement among early adolescents. Youth & Society, 41(1), 3–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobolewski, J. M., & King, V. (2005). The importance of the coparental relationship for nonresident fathers’ ties to children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1196–1212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sodermans, A. K., Botterman, S., Havermans, N., & Matthijs, K. (2015). Involved fathers, liberated mothers? Joint physical custody and the subjective well-being of divorced parents. Social Indicators Research, 122(1), 257–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sodermans, A. K., Matthijs, K., & Swicegood, G. (2013). Characteristics of joint physical custody families in Flanders. Demographic Research, 28(29), 821–848.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sodermans, A. K., Vanassche, S., & Matthijs, K. (2013). Post-divorce custody arrangements and binuclear family structures of Flemish adolescents. Demographic Research, 28(15), 421–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sodermans, A. K., Vanassche, S., Matthijs, K., & Swicegood, G. (2014). Measuring postdivorce living arrangements: Theoretical and empirical validation of the residential calendar. Journal of Family Issues, 35(1), 125–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spera, C. (2005). A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 125–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spruijt, E., & Duindam, V. (2009). Joint physical custody in the Netherlands and the well-being of children. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 51(1), 65–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sun, Y., & Li, Y. (2009). Parental divorce, sibship size, family resources, and children’s academic performance. Social Science Research, 38(3), 622–634.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney, M. M. (2007). Stepfather families and the emotional well-being of adolescents. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48(1), 33–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney, M. M. (2010). Remarriage and stepfamilies: Strategic sites for family scholarship in the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 667–684.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, E., Mosley, J., Hanson, T. L., & McLanahan, S. S. (2001). Remarriage, cohabitation, and changes in mothering behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(2), 370–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tschann, J. M., Johnston, J. R., & Wallerstein, J. S. (1989). Resources, stressors, and attachment as predictors of adult adjustment after divorce: A longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(4), 1033–1046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vanassche, S. (2013). Stepfamily configurations and trajectories following divorce. A quantitative study on stepfamily situations, stepfamily relationships and the wellbeing of children. Leuven: KU Leuven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanassche, S., Corijn, M., Matthijs, K., & Swicegood, G. (2015). Repartnering and childbearing after divorce: Differences according to parental status and custodial arrangements. Population Research and Policy Review, 34, 761–784.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vanassche, S., Sodermans, A. K., Dekeyser, G., & Matthijs, K. (2012). Methodologische documenten Leuvens Adolescenten en Gezinnenonderzoek [Methodological documents Leuven adolescent and family study]. Leuven: Centrum voor Sociologisch Onderzoek.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbroucke, F., & Vinck, J. (2013). Child poverty risks in Belgium, Wallonia, Flanders: Accounting for a worrying performance. In P. Maystadt, B. Cantillon, L. Denayer, P. Pestieau, B. Van der Linden, & M. Cattelain (Eds.), Le modèle social belge: Quel avenir? (Vol. 53, pp. 85–144). Charleroi: Presses interuniversitaires de Charleroi.

  • Wagmiller, R. L., Gershoff, E., Veliz, P., & Clements, M. (2010). Does children’s academic achievement improve when single mothers marry? Sociology of Education, 83(2), 201–226.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author Contributions

N.H.: designed and executed the study, conducted data analyses, and wrote the paper. S.V.: collaborated with the design and writing of the study. K.M.: collaborated in editing the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Sociological Research, Family and Population Studies, University of Leuven, Parkstraat 45 box 3601, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Nele Havermans, Sofie Vanassche & Koen Matthijs

Authors
  1. Nele Havermans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sofie Vanassche
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Koen Matthijs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nele Havermans.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Havermans, N., Vanassche, S. & Matthijs, K. Children’s Post-Divorce Living Arrangements and School Engagement: Financial Resources, Parent–Child Relationship, Selectivity and Stress. J Child Fam Stud 26, 3425–3438 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0843-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0843-0

Keywords

  • Education
  • Families
  • Parenting
  • Structural equation modeling