Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Differences: Emotional Distress as an Indirect Effect Between Family Cohesion and Adolescent Alcohol Use

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Early alcohol abuse is related to negative outcomes that can persist into adulthood. Family cohesion is often associated with the development of emotional distress and alcohol use, while emotional distress is suggested as the most problematic motivation for alcohol use. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), this study explored the relationship between family cohesion, emotional distress, and adolescent alcohol use for N = 6,504 adolescents. Results indicated emotional distress as indirectly related to adolescent alcohol use through family cohesion, supporting family systems theory in considering the development of alcohol use in adolescence. A multiple sample analysis indicated gender differences in the model, such that family cohesion was more strongly related to female adolescents’ reported emotional distress, while emotional distress was more strongly related to males’ reported problems related to alcohol use. These findings support the need to consider not only how an adolescent’s emotional state is related to their problematic behavior, but also how that could be representative of the parent–child relationship, and an indicator of the health of the family system.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abalbjanardottir, S., & Hafsteinsson, L. G. (2001). Adolescents’ perceived parenting styles and their substance use: Concurrent and longitudinal analyses. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 401–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ackard, D. M., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., & Perry, C. (2006). Parent–child connectedness and behavioral and emotional health among adolescents. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 30, 59–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J. P., Insabella, G., Porter, M. R., Smith, F. D., Land, D., & Phillips, N. (2006). A social-interactional model of the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 55–65.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P. D. (2003). Missing data techniques for structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 545–557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (2010). Amos (Version 19.0) [Computer Program]. Chicago: SPSS.

  • Atkinson, E. R., Dadds, M. R., Chipuer, H., & Dawe, S. (2008). Threat is a multidimensional construct: Exploring the role of children’s threat appraisals in the relationship between interparental conflict and child adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(2), 281–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, J. (2002). Is family cohesion a risk factor during adolescent development? Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 668–675.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. A., Hill, K. G., Oesterle, S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2006). Linking substance use and problem behavior across three generations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 273–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, G. M., & Farrell, M. P. (1992). Parental support and control as predictors of adolescent drinking, delinquency, and related problem behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 54, 163–776.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Blum, R. W, Shew, M., Ireland, M., Beringer, L. H., et al. (1998). Constructed measures of risk behavior, family context, school context, and individual characteristics. Unpublished manuscript, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN & University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.

  • Bowen, M. (1974). Alcoholism as viewed through family systems theory and family psychotherapy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 233, 115–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: Retrospect and prospect. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points in attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1–2, Serial No. 209), 3–35.

  • Brody, L. R. (1997). Gender and emotion: Beyond stereotypes. Journal of Social Issues, 53(2), 369–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, L. R. (2000). The socialization of gender differences in emotional expression: Display rules, infant temperament, and differentiation. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 24–47). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Caspers, K. M., Cadoret, R. J., Langbehn, D., Yucuis, R., & Troutman, B. (2005). Contributions of attachment style and perceived social support to lifetime use of illicit substances. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 1007–1011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catanzaro, S. J., & Laurent, J. (2004). Perceived family support, negative mood regulation expectancies, coping, and adolescent alcohol use: Evidence of mediation and moderation effects. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1779–1797.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choquet, M., Hassler, C., Morin, D., Falissard, B., & Chau, N. (2008). Perceived parenting styles and tobacco, alcohol and cannabis use among French adolescents: Gender and family structure differentials. Alcohol & Alcoholism, 43, 73–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coffelt, N. L., Forehand, R., Olson, A. L., Jones, D. J., Gaffney, C. A., & Zens, M. S. (2006). A longitudinal examination of the link between parent alcohol problems and youth drinking: The moderating roles of parent and child gender. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 593–605.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, M. L. (1994). Motivations for alcohol use among adolescents: Development and validation of a four-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 6, 117–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, W. M., & Klinger, E. (1988). A motivational model of alcohol use. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 168–180.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, M. J., & Paley, B. (1997). Families as systems. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 243–267.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cranford, J. A., Zucker, R. A., Jester, J. M., Puttler, L. I., & Fitzgerald, H. E. (2010). Parental alcohol involvement and adolescent alcohol expectancies predict alcohol involvement in male adolescents. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 24(3), 386–396.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Crosnoe, R., & Elder, G. H. (2004). Family dynamics, supportive relationships, and educational resilience during adolescence. Journal of Family Issues, 25, 571–602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crosnoe, R., & McNeely, C. (2008). Peer relations, adolescent behavior, and public health research and practice. Family Community Health, 31(18), S71–S80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cruz, J. E., Emery, R. E., & Turkheimer, E. (2012). Peer network drinking predicts increased alcohol use from adolescence to early adulthood after controlling for genetic and shared environmental selection. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1390–1402.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P. T., & Lindsay, L. L. (2004). Interparental conflict and adolescent adjustment: Why does gender moderate early adolescent vulnerability? Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 160–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Demo, D. H., & Acock, A. C. (1996). Family structure, family process, and adolescent well-being. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6, 457–488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., & Loeber, R. (1985). Adolescent marijuana and alcohol use: The role of parents and peers revisited. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 11, 11–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El-Sheikh, M., & Buckhalt, J. A. (2003). Parental problem drinking and children’s adjustment: Attachment and family functioning as moderators and mediators of risk. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 510–520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fallu, J. S., Janosz, M., Briere, F. N., Descheneaux, A., Vitaro, F., & Tremblay, R. E. (2010). Preventing disruptive boys from becoming heavy substance users during adolescence: A longitudinal study of familial and peer-related protective factors. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 1074–1082.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farrell, M. P., Barnes, G. M., & Banerjee, S. (1995). Family cohesion as a buffer against the effects of problem-drinking fathers on psychological distress, deviant behavior, and heavy drinking adolescents. American Sociological Association, 36, 377–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, R. M. (2006). The eight concepts of Bowen theory. Falls Church, VA: Leading Systems Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, B. F., & Dawson, D. A. (1997). Age at onset of alcohol use and its association with DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9, 103–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, V. V., Sherry, S. H., & Mohr, C. D. (2009). Coping-anxiety and coping-depression motives predict different daily mood-drinking relationships. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23(2), 226–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555–561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Whitsel, E., Hussey, J., Tabor, J., Entzel, P., et al. (2009). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health: Research design. http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • IBM Corporation. (2010). IBM SPSS statistics 19. Somers, NY: IBM Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, K. M., Sher, K. J., Cooper, M. L., & Wood, P. K. (2002). Adolescent alcohol and tobacco use: Onset, persistence and trajectories of use across two samples. Addiction, 97(5), 517–531.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, A. B., O’Flaherty, M., Tournbourou, J. W., Connor, J. P., Hemphill, S. A., & Catalano, R. F. (2011a). Gender differences in the impact of families on alcohol use: A lagged longitudinal study of early adolescents. Addiction, 106(8), 1427–1436.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, A. B., Tournbourou, J. W., O’Flaherty, M., Patton, G. C., Homel, R., Connor, J. P., et al. (2011b). Family relationship quality and early alcohol use: Evidence for gender-specific risk processes. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(3), 399–407.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, D. C. R., Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., & Owen, L. D. (2012). Intergenerational influences on early alcohol use: Independence from the problem behavior pathway. Developmental Psychopathology, 24(3), 889–906.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, S. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2004). Childhood externalizing and internalizing psychopathology in the prediction of early substance use. Addiction, 99, 1548–1559.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, M. D., Krueger, R. F., & Hicks, B. M. (2008). The role of internalizing and externalizing liability factors in accounting for gender differences in the prevalence of common psychopathological syndromes. Psychological Medicine, 38, 51–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuendig, H., & Kuntsche, E. (2006). Family bonding and adolescent alcohol use: Moderating effect of living with excessive drinking parents. Alcohol & Alcoholism, 41(4), 464–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuntsche, E., Knibbe, R., Gmel, G., & Engels, R. (2005). Why do young people drink? A review of drinking motives. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 841–861.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. M., & Bell, N. J. (2003). Individual differences in attachment-autonomy configurations: Linkages with substance use and youth competencies. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 347–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKeown, R. E., Garrison, C. Z., Jackson, K. L., Cuffe, S. P., Addy, C. L., & Waller, J. L. (1997). Family structure and cohesion, and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7(3), 267–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNally, A. M., Palfai, T. P., Levine, R. V., & Moore, B. M. (2003). Attachment dimensions and drinking-related problems among young adults: The mediational role of coping motives. Addictive Behaviors, 28(6), 1115–1127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2011). Mplus user's guide: Sixth edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

  • National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2004/2005). The effects of alcohol on physiological processes and biological development. Alcohol Research & Health, 28, 125–131.

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115(3), 424–443.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Hilt, L. (2006). Possible contributors to the gender differences in alcohol use and problems. The Journal of General Psychology, 133, 357–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). Spss and sas procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Protinsky, H., & Shilts, L. (1990). Adolescent substance use and family cohesion. Family Therapy, 17(2), 173–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., et al. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823–832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberta, G. (2006). The eight concepts of Bowen theory: A new way of thinking about the individual and group. Virginia: Leading Systems Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2001). A scaled difference Chi square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66, 507–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler, A., Thomasius, R., Sack, P. M., Gemeinhardt, B., KÜStner, U., & Eckert, J. (2005). Attachment and substance use disorders: A review of the literature and a study in drug dependent adolescents. Attachment & Human Development, 7(3), 207–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinhausen, H. C., & Winkler Metzke, C. (2003). The validity of adolescent types of alcohol use. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(5), 677–686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2009). Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-36, HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434). Rockville, MD.

  • Sussman, S., Dent, C. W., & Galaif, E. R. (1997). The correlates of substance abuse and dependence among adolescents at high risk for drug abuse. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9, 241–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tapert, S. F., Caldwell, L., & Burke, C. (2004/2005). Alcohol and the adolescent brain. Alcohol Research & Health, 28, 205–212.

  • Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M. D., & Freeman-Gallant, A. (2006). Intergenerational roots of early onset substance use. Journal of Drug Issues, 36(1), 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, T. C., & Selekman, M. D. (Eds.). (1991). Family therapy approaches with adolescent substance abusers. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

  • Ulbrich, P. M., Warheit, G. J., & Zimmerman, R. S. (1989). Race, socioeconomic status, and psychological distress: An examination of differential vulnerability. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 131–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unger, J. B., Ritt-Olson, A., Soto, D. W., & Baezconde-Garbanati, L. (2009). Parent-child acculturation discrepancies as a risk factor for substance use among Hispanic adolescents in Southern California. Journal of Immigrant Minority Health, 11, 149–157.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. (2007). Underage drinking. (NIH Publication). Retrieved from http://www.nih.gov/about/researchresultsforthepublic/UnderageDrinking.pdf

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Applied Studies. (2009). Adolescent behavioral health: A short report from the Office of Applied Studies. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/StatesInBrief/2009/teens/OASTeenReportUS.pdf

  • van der Vorst, H., Engels, R. C., Meeus, W., Deković, M., & Vermulst, A. (2006). Parental attachment, parental control, and early development of alcohol use: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20(2), 107–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallin, D. J. (2007). Attachment in psychotherapy. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wark, M. J., Kruczek, T., & Boley, A. (2003). Emotional neglect and family structure: Impact on student functioning. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27, 1033–1043.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by Grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No direct support was received from Grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Texas Tech University, 1301 Akron Ave, Box 41250, Lubbock, TX, 79409, USA

    Kristy L. Soloski

  2. The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

    M. Blake Berryhill

Authors
  1. Kristy L. Soloski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. M. Blake Berryhill
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kristy L. Soloski.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Soloski, K.L., Berryhill, M.B. Gender Differences: Emotional Distress as an Indirect Effect Between Family Cohesion and Adolescent Alcohol Use. J Child Fam Stud 25, 1269–1283 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0311-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0311-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation