Abstract
Parental divorce is assumed to negatively affect diverse aspects of emerging adults’ functioning. The aims of this study were to analyze the effects of parental divorce and to identify divorce-related factors that may have an impact on the well-being of emerging adults from divorced families. Participants were 964 Spanish emerging adults (45 % women). One hundred and twenty-five of them were from divorced families. They completed an anonymous survey that included measures of subjective well-being (satisfaction with life, positive and negative affect), romantic status, length of the current relationship, age at onset of the divorce, parental remarriage and the experience of “carrying messages” between their divorced parents. Preliminary results revealed small differences in satisfaction with life and no differences in positive affect between emerging adults from divorced and non-divorced families. However, emerging adults from divorced families showed significantly higher levels of negative affect. Negative affect was not related to gender, romantic status or parental remarriage, but it was related to parental demands to carry messages. Children, who were older when their parents divorced, and females were more likely to have been asked to carry messages and showed the highest levels of negative affect. In fact, controlling for gender and age at onset of the divorce, carrying messages was the main predictor of negative affect for the emerging adults in this sample. The implications of these findings for work with divorced families and their children are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afifi, T. D. (2003). Feeling caught in stepfamilies: Managing boundary turbulence through appropriate communication privacy rules. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20, 729–756. doi:10.1177/0265407503206002.
Afifi, T. D., Granger, D. A., Joseph, A., Denes, A., & Aldeis, D. (2013). The influence of divorce and parents’ communication skills on adolescents’ and young adults’ stress reactivity and recovery. Communication Research,. doi:10.1177/0093650213509665.
Afifi, T. D., & Hamrick, K. (2006). Communication processes that promote risk and resiliency in post-divorce families. In M. Fine & J. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of divorce and relationship dissolution (pp. 435–457). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Afifi, T. D., & Schrodt, P. (2004). Adolescents’ and young adults’ feelings of being caught between their parents in divorced and non-divorced households. Communication Monographs, 70, 142–173.
Ahrons, C. R. (2007). Family ties after divorce: Long-term implications for children. Family Process, 46, 53–65. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2006.00191.x.
Amato, P. R. (2010). Research on divorce: Continuing trends and new developments. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 650–666. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00723.x.
Amato, P. R., & Afifi, T. D. (2006). Feeling caught between parents: Adult children’s relations with parents and subjective well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 222–235. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00243.x.
Arnett, J. J. (2007). Emerging adulthood: What is it, and what is it good for? Child Development Perspectives, 1, 68–73. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00016.x.
Atienza, F. L., Pons, D., Balaguer, I., & García-Merita, M. (2000). Propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida en adolescentes (Psychometric properties of the Satisfaction with Life Scale in adolescents). Psicothema, 12, 314–319.
Barber, B. L., & Demo, D. H. (2006). The kids are alright: Links between divorce and dissolution and child well-being. In M. A. Fine & J. H. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of divorce and relationship dissolution (pp. 289–313). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.
Browne, M. W., & Cudek, R. (1993). Alternate ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Buehler, C., & Welsh, D. P. (2009). A process model of adolescents’ triangulation into parents’ marital conflict: The role of emotional reactivity. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 167–180. doi:10.1037/a0014976.
Chappel, A. M., Suldo, S. M., & Ogg, J. A. (2014). Associations between adolescents’ family stressors and life satisfaction. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 76–84. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9687-9.
Cookston, J. T., & Fung, W. W. (2011). The kids’ turn program evaluation: Probing change within a community-based intervention for separating families. Family Court Review, 49, 348–363. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1617.2011.01376.x.
Cui, M., Fincham, F. D., & Durtschi, J. A. (2011). The effect of parental divorce on young adults’ romantic relationship dissolution: What makes a difference? Personal Relationships, 18, 410–426. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01306.x.
Davila, J. (2011). Romantic relationships and mental health in emerging adulthood. In F. D. Fincham & M. Cui (Eds.), Romantic relationships in emerging adulthood (pp. 275–292). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Diener, E. (2012). New findings and future directions for subjective well-being research. American Psychologist, 67, 590–597. doi:10.1037/a0029541.
Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2009). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and life satisfaction. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 187–194). New York: Oxford University Press.
Emery, R. E. (1999). Marriage, divorce and children’s adjustment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Eurostat, Statistical Office of the European Communities (2014). Marriage and divorce statistics 2012. Retrieved from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Marriage_and_divorce_statistics
Fackrell, T. A., Hawkins, A. J., & Kay, N. M. (2011). How effective are court-affiliated divorcing parents’ education programs? A meta-analytic study. Family Court Review, 49, 107–119. doi:10.1111/j.1744-1617.2010.01356.x.
Fergusson, D. M., McLeod, G. F., & John Horwood, L. (2014). Parental separation/divorce in childhood and partnership outcomes at age 30. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 352–360. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12107.
Fosco, G. M., & Grych, J. H. (2010). Adolescent triangulation into parental conflicts: Longitudinal implications for appraisals and adolescent-parent relations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 254–266. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00697.x.
Fraley, R. C., & Heffernan, M. E. (2013). Attachment and parental divorce: A test of the diffusion and sensitive period hypotheses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1199–1213. doi:10.1177/0146167213491503.
Frosch, C. A., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (2001). Marital behavior, parenting behavior, and multiple reports of preschoolers’ behavior problems: Mediation or moderation? Developmental Psychology, 37, 502–519. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.37.4.502.
Ganong, L., & Coleman, M. (2004). Stepfamily relationships: Development, dynamics, and interventions. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Garmendia, A., & Yárnoz-Yaben, S. (2014). Validity and reliability of the Spanish translation of the Attitudes Towards Divorce Scale. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 55, 348–362. doi:10.1080/10502556.2014.920681.
Goldman, R. N., & Greenberg, L. (2013). Working with identity and self-soothing in emotion-focused therapy for couples. Family Process, 52, 62–82. doi:10.1111/famp.12021.
Herzog, M. J., & Cooney, T. M. (2002). Parental divorce and perceptions of past interparental conflict: Influences on the communication of young adults. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 36, 89–109. doi:10.1300/J087v36n03_06.
Hetherington, E. M. (2003). Intimate pathways: Changing patterns in close personal relationships across time. Family Relations, 52, 318–331. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00318.x.
Hetherington, E. M., & Kelly, J. (2002). For better or for worse: Divorce reconsidered. New York, NY: Norton.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55.
INE, Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute) (2014). Estadística de nulidades, separaciones y divorcios 2013 (Statistics on annulments, separations and divorces 2013). Retrieved from www.ine.es/en/prensa/prensa_en.htm
Jeynes, W. H. (2006). The impact of parental remarriage on children: A meta-analysis. Marriage and Family Review, 40, 75–102. doi:10.1300/J002v40n04_05.
Kelly, J. B., & Emery, R. E. (2003). Children’s adjustment following divorce: Risk and resilience perspectives. Family Relations, 52, 352–362. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00352.x.
Koerner, S. S., Wallace, S., Lehman, S. J., & Raymond, M. (2002). Mother-to-daughter disclosure after divorce: Are there costs and benefits? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11, 469–483.
Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Family Relations, 49, 25–44. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00025.x.
Larsen, R. (2009). The contributions of positive and negative affect to emotional well-being. Psihologijske Teme, 18, 247–266.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803.
Mustonen, U., Huurre, T., Kiviruusu, O., Haukkala, A., & Aro, H. (2011). Long-term impact of parental divorce on intimate relationship quality in adulthood and the mediating role of psychosocial resources. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 615–619. doi:10.1037/a0023996.
Oliva, A., Arranz, E., Parra, A., & Olabarrieta, F. (2014). Family structure and child adjustment in Spain. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 10–19. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9681-2.
Owen, J., Manthos, M., & Quirk, K. (2013). Dismantling study of prevention and relationship education program: The effects of a structured communication intervention. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 336–341. doi:10.1037/a0031597.
Owen, J., & Rhoades, G. K. (2012). Reducing interparental conflict among parents in contentious child custody disputes: An initial investigation of the Working Together Program. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38, 542–555. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2010.00215.x.
Riggio, H. R., & Weiser, D. A. (2008). Attitudes toward marriage: Embeddedness and outcomes in personal relationships. Personal Relationships, 15, 123–140. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2007.00188.x.
Roth, K. E., Harkins, D. A., & Eng, L. A. (2014). Parental conflict during divorce as an indicator of adjustment and future relationships: A retrospective sibling study. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 55, 117–138. doi:10.1080/10502556.2013.871951.
Salem, P., Sandler, I., & Wolchik, S. (2013). Taking stock of parent education in the family courts: Envisioning a public health approach. Family Court Review, 51, 131–148. doi:10.1111/fcre.12014.
Sassler, S., Cunningham, A., & Lichter, D. (2009). Intergenerational patterns of union formation and relationship quality. Journal of Family Issues, 30, 757–786. doi:10.1177/0192513X09331580.
Segrin, C., & Flora, J. (2014). Family communication. London: Routledge.
Sobolewski, J. M., & Amato, P. R. (2005). Economic hardship in the family of origin and children’s psychological well-being in adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 141–156. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2005.00011.x.
Spichiger, M. C. B. (2013). La experiencia de individuación de una adolescente: confusión de roles parentales como factor de riesgo en el contexto de adopción interfamiliar (The experience of an adolescent’s individuation: Parental role confusion as a risk factor in the context of inter-family adoption). Revista Sul-Americana de Psicología, 1, 81–101.
Tanner, J. L., Arnett, J. J., & Leis, J. A. (2009). Emerging adulthood: Learning and development during the first stage of adulthood. In M. C. Smith & N. DeFrates-Densch (Eds.), Handbook of research on adult learning and development (pp. 34–67). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Verrocchio, M. C., & Baker, A. J. (2013). Italian adults’ recall of childhood exposure to parental loyalty conflicts. Journal of Child and Family Studies,. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9816-0.
Vuchinich, S., Emery, R., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Family members as third parties in dyadic family conflict: Strategies, alliances, and outcomes. Child Development, 59, 1293–1302.
Warr, P., Barter, J., & Brown-Bridge, G. (1983). On the independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 644–651. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.3.644.
Whitton, S. W., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., & Markman, H. J. (2008). Effects of parental divorce on marital commitment and confidence. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 789–793. doi:10.1037/a0012800.
Yárnoz, S., Plazaola, M., & Etxeberria, J. (2008). Adaptation to divorce: An attachment-based intervention with long-term divorced parents. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 49, 291–307. doi:10.1080/10502550802222246.
Yárnoz-Yaben, S. (2015). Forgiveness, adjustment to divorce and support from the former spouse in Spain. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 289–297. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9835-x.
Yárnoz-Yaben, S., Comino, P., & Garmendia, A. (2012). Ajuste al divorcio de los progenitores y problemas de conducta en hijos de familias separadas (Parental adjustment to divorce and behavior problems in children from divorced families). Infancia y Aprendizaje, 35, 37–47.
Yárnoz-Yaben, S., Comino, P., & Sansinenea, E. (2014). La PNA-10, una escala breve para evaluar el afecto positivo y negativo en español (PNA-10, a short scale for the evaluation of positive and negative affect in Spanish). Behavioral Psychology/Psicología Conductual, 22, 327–343.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by a predoctoral Grant of the Basque Government to the second author, code BFI09.144 and by a Contract for the implementation of specific projects of scientific and technical research of the University of the Basque Country, UPV-EHU.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yárnoz-Yaben, S., Garmendia, A. Parental Divorce and Emerging Adults’ Subjective Well-Being: The Role of “Carrying Messages”. J Child Fam Stud 25, 638–646 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0229-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0229-0