Skip to main content

Cultivating Mind: Mindfulness Interventions for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Problem Behaviours, and Their Mothers

Journal of Child and Family Studies volume 24, pages 3093–3106 (2015)Cite this article

Abstract

Problem behaviours in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are a major source of parenting stress, as they restrict family capacity to maintain quality domestic and social life. It is therefore critical to support parents to manage the problem behaviours of their child with ASD. Recent mindfulness intervention studies have successfully addressed this issue. The current pilot study pursues this line of enquiry and extends the scope of mindfulness intervention by training parents to become a mindfulness teacher of their own child with ASD and problem behaviours, so together they can work on enhancing the quality of their domestic and social life. A total of six dyads of mothers (CA range 34–48 years) and children with ASD and problem behaviours (CA range 8–15 years) participated in a two-stage mindfulness intervention. Mothers attended an 8-week mindfulness program to attain fluency in the theory and practice of mindfulness meditation (Stage 1). Based on this fluency they then taught mindfulness activities to their child (Stage 2). This paper reports on the effects of the mindfulness intervention provided for mothers (Stage 1) and children (Stage 2) as demonstrated by the level of mindfulness, parenting stress, and family quality of life for mothers, and problem behaviours for children. The results highlight overall improvements in the targeted areas. Some benefits, issues, and challenges of mindfulness training for parents and their children with ASD are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

References

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altmaier, E., & Maloney, R. (2007). An initial evaluation of a mindful parenting program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63, 1231–1238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Analayo, S. (2003). The direct path to realization. Birmingham: Windhorse Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bearss, K., Lecavalier, L., Minshawl, N., Johnson, C., Smith, T., Handen, B., & Scahill, L. (2013). Toward an exportable parent training program for disruptive behaviours in autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychiatry, 3(2), 169–180.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beer, M., Ward, L., & Moar, K. (2013). The relationship between mindful parenting and distress in parents of children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. Mindfulness, 4, 102–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., & Roeser, R. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental Psychology, 48, 1476–1487.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, P. (2010). Coping, distress, and well-being in mothers of children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 217–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. D., & Jones, W. H. (1995). The parental stress scale: Initial psychometric evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12, 463–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackledge, J. T., & Hayes, S. C. (2006). Using acceptance and commitment training in the support of parents of children diagnosed with autism. Child & Family Behaviour Therapy, 28(1), 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bluth, K., Roberson, P., Billen, R., & Sams, J. (2013). A stress model for couples parenting children with autism spectrum disorders and the introduction of a Mindfulness intervention. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 5, 194–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bodhi, B. (2000). The connected discourses of Buddha: A translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodhi, B. (2012). What does mindfulness really mean? A canonical perspective. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 19–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bögels, S., Hellemans, J., van Deursen, S., Römer, M., & van der Meulen, R. (2013). Mindful parenting in mental health care: Effects on parental and child psychology, parental stress, parenting, coparenting, and marital functioning. Mindfulness. doi:10.1007/s12671-013-0209-7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bögels, S., Lehtonen, A., & Restifo, K. (2010). Mindful Parenting in mental health care. Mindfulness, 1, 107–120.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boucher, J. (2009). The autistic spectrum: Characteristics, causes and practical issues. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brookman-Frazee, L. (2004). Using parent/clinician partnerships in parent education programs for children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6, 195–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charman, T., & Howlin, P. (2003). Research into early intervention for children with autism and related disorders: Methodological and design issues. Autism, 7, 217–225.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coatsworth, D., Duncan, L., Greenberg, M., & Nix, R. (2010). Changing parent’s mindfulness, child management skills and relationship quality with their youth: Results from a randomized pilot intervention trial. Journal of Child Family Studies, 19, 203–217.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coolican, J., Smith, I. M., & Bryson, S. E. (2010). Brief parent training in pivotal response treatment for preschoolers with autism. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 1321–1330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dumas, J. (2005). Mindfulness-based parent training: Strategies to lessen the grip of automaticity in families with disruptive children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34, 779–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, L., Coatsworth, D., & Greenberg, M. (2009). A model of mindful parenting: Implications for parent-child relationships and prevention research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 255–270.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenhower, A. S., Baker, B. L., & Blacher, J. (2005). Preschool children with intellectual disability: Syndrome specificity, behavior problems, and maternal well-being. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49, 657–671.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estes, A., Munson, J., Dawson, G., Koehler, E., Zhou, X., & Abbott, R. (2009). Parenting stress and psychological functioning among mothers of preschool children with autism and developmental delay. Autism, 13, 375–387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferraioli, S., & Harris, S. (2013). Comparative effects of mindfulness and skills-based parent training programs for parents of children with autism: Feasibility and preliminary outcome data. Mindfulness, 4, 89–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gethin, R. M. L. (2001). The Buddhist path to awakening: A study of the bodhi-pakkhiyā-dhammā. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, R. L., Matson, J. L., Tureck, K., Cervantes, P. E., & Jang, J. (2013). A comparison of tantrum behavior profiles in children with ASD, ADHD and comorbid ASD and ADHD. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(9), 2669–2675.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P. (2010). Mindfulness for Psychologists: Paying kind attention to the perceptible. Mindfulness, 1, 87–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gunaratana, H. (1985). The path of serenity and insight. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, A., Dyches, T. T., Harper, J., Roper, S. O., & South, M. (2013). Respite care, marital quality, and stress in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1812-0.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heflin, L. J., & Alaimo, D. F. (2006). Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Effective instructional practices. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L., Marquis, J. G., Poston, D. J., Summers, J. A., & Turnbull, A. (2006). Assessing family outcomes: Psychometric evaluation of the family quality of life scale. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 1069–1083.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, Y.-S., & Kearney, P. (2014). Mindful and mutual care for individuals with developmental disabilities: A systematic literature review. Journal of Child Family Studies, 23(3), 497–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, Y.-S., Klieve, H., Kearney, P., & Saggers, B. (2013). Experience, recursive awareness and understanding in autism spectrum disorders: Insights of parents and teachers in Singapore. Asia Pacific Journal of Education. doi:10.1080/02188791.2013.860013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, Y.-S., & Kearney, P. (Manuscript in preparation). A mindfulness intervention for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: New directions in research and practice. New York: Springer.

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (2011). Some reflections on the origins of MBSR, skillful means, and the trouble with maps. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 281–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A. O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L. G., Fletcher, K. E., Pbert, L., & Santorelli, S. F. (1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 49(7), 936–943.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuan, T.-F. (2008). Mindfulness in early buddhism: New approaches through psychology and textual analysis of Pali, Chinese and Sanskrit sources. London and New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, L.-C., Harrington, R. A., Louie, B. B., & Newschaffer, C. (2008). Children with autism: Quality of life and parental concerns. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1147–1160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lucyshyn, J., Albin, R., Horner, R. H., Mann, J., & Wadsworth, G. (2007). Family implementation of positive behavior support for a child with autism: Longitudinal, single-case, experimental, and descriptive replication and extension. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9, 131–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, S. H., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: Replication and exploration of differential relapse prevention effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(1), 31–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, E. E., & Hastings, R. P. (2008). Mindful parenting and care involvement of fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Child Family Studies. doi:10.1007/s10826-008-9243-9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matson, M., Mahan, S., & Matson, J. (2009). Parent training: A review of methods for children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3, 868–875.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCown, D., Reibel, D., & Micozzi, M. S. (2011). Teaching minduflness: A practical guide for clinicians and educators. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGill, P., Papachristoforou, E., & Cooper, V. (2006). Support for family carers of children and young people with developmental disabilities and challenging behaviour. Child: Care, Health and Development, 32(2), 159–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrath, A. (2013). Links between the conduct of carers and clients’ challenging behaviour. Learning Disability Practice, 16(6), 30–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neece, C. (2013). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for parents of young children with developmental delays: Implications for parental mental health and child behaviour problems. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. doi:10.1111/jar.12064.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neece, C., Green, S., & Baker, B. (2012). Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117, 48–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oono, I., Honey, E., & McConachie, H. (2013). Early intervention delivered by parents for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009774.pub2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oord, S., van der Bögels, S., & Peijnenburg, D. (2012). The effectiveness of mindfulness training for children with ADHD and mindful parenting for their parents. Journal of Child Family Studies, 21, 139–147.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J. (2011). Mindfulness: A tool for parents and children with Asperger’s Syndrome. Mindfulness, 2, 212–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silva, L., & Schalock, M. (2012). Autism parenting stress index: Initial psychometric evidence. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 566–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siman-Tov, A., & Kaniel, S. (2011). Stress and personal resource as predictors of the adjustment of parents to autistic children: A multivariate model. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 879–890.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Manikam, R., Winton, A. S. W., Singh, A. N. A., Singh, J., & Singh, A. D. A. (2011a). A mindfulness-based strategy for self-management of aggressive behaviour in adolescents with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 1153–1158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Singh, A. D. A., Winton, A. S. W., Singh, A. N. A., & Singh, J. (2011b). Adolescents with Asperger Syndrome can use a mindfulness-based strategy to control their aggressive behaviour. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 1103–1109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Winton, A. S. W., Fisher, B. C., Wahler, R. G., McAleavey, K., & SaBaawi, M. (2006). Mindful parenting decreases aggression, noncompliance, and self-injury in children with autism. Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 14(3), 169–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Winton, A. S. W., Karazsia, B. T., Myers, R. E., Latham, L. I., & Singh, J. (2014). Mindfulness-based positive behavior support (MBPBS) for mothers of adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Effects on adolescents’ behavior and parental stress. Mindfulness. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0321-3.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Winton, A. S. W., Singh, J., Curtis, W. J., Wahler, R. G., & McAleavey, K. M. (2007). Mindful parenting decreases aggression and increases social behaviour in children with developmental disabilities. Behaviour Modification, 31, 749–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. W., Daunic, A. P., & Taylor, G. G. (2007). Treatment fidelity in applied educational research: Expanding the adoption and application of measures to ensure evidence-based practice. Education and treatment of children, 30(4), 121–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmuller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006). Measuring mindfulness—the Freiburg mindfulness inventory (FMI). Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1543–1555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, J. A., & Lunsky, Y. (2011). The brief family distress scale: A measure of crisis in caregivers of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Family Studies, 20, 521–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Griffith University, 176 Messines Ridge Road, Mt Gravatt, QLD, 4122, Australia

    Yoon-Suk Hwang, Helen Klieve, Wayne Lang & Jacqueline Roberts

  2. Independent Mindfulness Teacher, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

    Patrick Kearney

Authors
  1. Yoon-Suk Hwang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patrick Kearney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Helen Klieve
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Wayne Lang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jacqueline Roberts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yoon-Suk Hwang.

Appendix: Weekly Content and Activities of the Parent Mindfulness Program

Appendix: Weekly Content and Activities of the Parent Mindfulness Program

Weekly theme

Topics and activities

Reading

1. Introducing mindfulness

Pre-training exercises

What is mindfulness?

What is meditation?

Loosening and relaxing

Meditation posture

Overview of mindfulness intervention

Introducing mindfulness

2. Serenity and insight

Concepts of serenity and insight

Loosening and relaxing

Structuring attention

Relationships to the meditation object

Meditation on elements

Serenity and insight

3. Tracking breathing

Concept of dharma

Loosening and relaxing

Breathing as a meditation object

Walking meditation

Discerning element

4. Tracking feeling

Concept of vedanā (“feeling”)

Loosening and relaxing

Exploring “watching” and “feeling”

Clear understanding on feeling

5. Tracking the thought-stream

Using thinking as a meditation object

Loosening and relaxing

Practising mindfulness in movement

The Thought-stream

6. The sublime states

Introducing the sublime states (brahmā vihāra) and meditation to cultivate them

Loosening and relaxing

The Sublime states

7. Finding the balance

Clear understanding and its role in meditation

Cultivating reflexive awareness

Refining meditation by balancing the mental factors of right energy (vāyāma), mindfulness (sati) and unification (samādhi)

Finding the balance

8. The four truths

Four truths (cattāro ariya-saccāni) as a framework for understanding the nature of practice

Loosening and relaxing

Learning to communicate practice experience

Plans for the future of the project

The four truths

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hwang, YS., Kearney, P., Klieve, H. et al. Cultivating Mind: Mindfulness Interventions for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Problem Behaviours, and Their Mothers. J Child Fam Stud 24, 3093–3106 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0114-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0114-x

Keywords

  • Mindfulness
  • Autism spectrum disorder
  • Parent
  • Attention training
  • Problem behaviours