Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of a Multidimensional Loneliness Scale: Comparisons Across Gender and Age

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study focuses on the factor structure of a multidimensional loneliness measure, that is, the Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents (LACA). Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on a large sample of children and adolescents (N = 9,676) in Belgium. Results indicated that the supposed four-factor structure of the instrument showed a superior fit when compared to alternative, more parsimonious models. Measurement invariance was established across gender and across all age groups in the intended age range (i.e., elementary school to freshman year in college). Age comparisons indicated that parent-related loneliness and positive attitudes to aloneness increased throughout adolescence. In sum, the present study offers strong support based on strict tests for the factor structure of a particular multidimensional loneliness measure (LACA). Future research should extend such analyses to other multidimensional measures of loneliness.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bossaert, G., Colpin, H., Pijl, S. J., & Petry, K. (2012). Loneliness among students with special educational needs in mainstream seventh grade. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33, 1888–1897. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2012.05.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464–504. doi:10.1080/10705510701301834.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, C. C.-H., Chyun, D. A., Li, C.-Y., & McCorkle, R. (2007). A single-item approach to screening elders for oral health assessment. Nursing Research, 56, 332–338. doi:10.1097/01.NNR.0000289504.30037.d8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corsano, P., Majorano, M., & Champretavy, L. (2006). Psychological well-being in adolescence: the contribution of interpersonal relations and experience of being alone. Adolescence, 41, 341–353.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cramer, K. M., & Barry, J. E. (1999). Conceptualizations and measures of loneliness: A comparison of subscales. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 491–502. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00257-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Roiste, A. (2000). Peer and parent-related loneliness in Irish adolescents. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 21, 237–246. doi:10.1080/03033910.2000.10558256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiTommaso, E., Brannen, C., & Best, L. A. (2004). Measurement and validity characteristics of the short version of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64, 99–119. doi:10.1177/0013164403258450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiTommaso, E., & Spinner, B. (1993). The development and initial validation of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA). Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 127–134. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90182-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of personal relationships. Child Development, 63, 103–115. doi:10.2307/1130905.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goossens, L. (Ed.) (2013). Leuvense Eenzaamheidsschaal voor Kinderen en Adolescenten: Handleiding [Loneliness and Aloneness Scale for Children and Adolescents: Manual]. Unpublished manuscript, Department of School Psychology and Child and Adolescent Development, KU Leuven, Belgium.

  • Goossens, L., & Beyers, W. (2002). Comparing measures of childhood loneliness: Internal consistency and confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 252–262. doi:10.1207/153744202753604520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goossens, L., Lasgaard, M., Luyckx, K., Vanhalst, J., Mathias, S., & Masy, E. (2009). Loneliness and solitude in adolescence: A confirmatory factor analysis of alternative models. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 890–894. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.07.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goossens, L., & Marcoen, A. (1999). Adolescent loneliness, self-reflection, and identity: From individual differences to developmental processes. In K. J. Rotenberg & S. Hymel (Eds.), Loneliness in childhood and adolescence (pp. 225–243). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hambleton, R. K. (1994). Guidelines for adapting educational and psychological tests: A progress report. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 10, 229–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann, L. A. (1991). Friendship development in early adolescence: Experience, expectations, and aspects of loneliness (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Oxford, OH: Miami University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, L. A., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 695–718. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, S., Hattie, J., Wood, L., Carroll, A., Martin, K., & Tan, C. (2013). Conceptualising loneliness in adolescents: Development and validation of a self-report instrument. Child Psychiatry and Human Development. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10578-013-0429-z.

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson, R. W. (1997). The emergence of solitude as a constructive domain of experience in early adolescence. Child Development, 68, 80–93. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01927.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lasgaard, M., Goossens, L., Bramsen, R. H., Trillingsgaard, T., & Elklit, A. (2011). Different sources of loneliness are associated with different forms of psychopathology in adolescence. Journal of Research in Personality, 45, 233–237. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.12.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, R. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202. doi:10.2307/2290157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 151–173. doi:10.1207/S15328007sem0902_1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcoen, A., & Goossens, L. (1993). Loneliness, attitude toward aloneness, and solitude: Age differences and developmental significance during adolescence. In S. Jackson & H. Rodriguez-Tome (Eds.), Adolescence and its social worlds (pp. 197–227). Hove, UK: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcoen, A., Goossens, L., & Caes, P. (1987). Loneliness in pre through late adolescence: Exploring the contributions of a multidimensional approach. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 561–577. doi:10.1007/bf02138821.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., & Hau, K.-T. (1999). Confirmatory factor analysis: Strategies for small sample sizes. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Statistical strategies for small sample research (pp. 251–284). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, J. K., Willoughby, T., & Chalmers, H. (2005). Psychosocial status of adolescents with learning disabilities with and without comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20, 234–244. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2005.00139.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melotti, G., Corsano, P., Majorano, M., & Scarpuzzi, P. (2006). An Italian application of the Louvain Loneliness Scale for Children and Adolescents (LLCA). Testing Psychometrics Methodology in Applied Psychology, 13, 237–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musetti, A., Corsano, P., Majorano, M., & Mancini, T. (2012). Idenitty processes and experience of being alone during late adolescence. International Journal of Psychoanalysis and Education, 4, 44–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Mplus user’s guide (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perlman, D., & Peplau, L. A. (1981). Toward a social psychology of loneliness. In S. Duck & R. Gilmour (Eds.), Personal relationships in disorder (Vol. 3, pp. 31–56). London, UK: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qualter, P., Brown, S. L., Munn, P., & Rotenberg, K. J. (2010). Childhood loneliness as a predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms: An 8-year longitudinal study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 493–501. doi:10.1007/s00787-009-0059-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D. (1982). The measurement of loneliness. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 81–104). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA loneliness scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472–480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.472.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. V. Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scharf, M., Wiseman, H., & Farah, F. (2011). Parent-adolescent relationships and social adjustment: The case of a collectivistic culture. International Journal of Psychology, 46, 177–190. doi:10.1080/00207594.2010.528424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, J. P., & Kurdek, L. A. (1985). Age and gender differences in and personality correlates of loneliness in different relationships. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 485–496. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4905_5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Terrell-Deutsch, B. (1999). The conceptualization and measurement of childhood loneliness. In K. J. Rotenberg & S. Hymel (Eds.), Loneliness in childhood and adolescence (pp. 11–33). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Schoot, R., Lugtig, P., & Hox, J. (2012). A checklist for testing measurement invariance. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 486–492. doi:10.1080/17405629.2012.686740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Roekel, E., Scholte, R. H., Verhagen, M., Goossens, L., & Engels, R. C. (2010). Loneliness in adolescence: Gene x environment interactions involving the serotonin transporter gene. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 747–754. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02225.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–70. doi:10.1177/109442810031002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of School Psychology and Child and Adolescent Development, KU Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, Box 3717, 3000, Louvain, Belgium

    Marlies Maes & Luc Goossens

  2. Department of Developmental Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Theo Klimstra

  3. Research Group of Methodology of Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Louvain, Belgium

    Wim Van den Noortgate

Authors
  1. Marlies Maes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Theo Klimstra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Wim Van den Noortgate
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Luc Goossens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marlies Maes.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Maes, M., Klimstra, T., Van den Noortgate, W. et al. Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of a Multidimensional Loneliness Scale: Comparisons Across Gender and Age. J Child Fam Stud 24, 1829–1837 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9986-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9986-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation