Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Childbearing Motivations Scale: Construction of a New Measure and its Preliminary Psychometric Properties

Journal of Child and Family Studies volume 24, pages 180–194 (2015)Cite this article

Abstract

Given recent shifts in fertility patterns, the assessment of childbearing motivations is important for understanding reproductive decision-making. To overcome previous methodological and conceptual flaws, a self-report scale was developed to assess positive and negative childbearing motivations and their respective subdimensions. The present study aimed to construct the final version of the Childbearing Motivations Scale (CMS) and examine its factorial structure and preliminary psychometric properties. A sample of 614 participants from the general population, aged 19–49 years, provided sociodemographic information and completed the experimental version of the CMS. Preliminary analyses were performed to refine the item pool. The final version of the CMS consisted of two parts: a positive childbearing motivations subscale (26 items) and a negative childbearing motivations subscale (21 items). The factorial structure of the CMS was analyzed using a split-half validation method. Exploratory factor analyses provided evidence for a four-factor model for the positive childbearing motivations subscale (i.e., socioeconomic aspects, personal fulfillment, continuity and the couple relationship) and a five-factor model for the negative childbearing motivations subscale (i.e., childrearing burden and immaturity, social and ecological worry, marital stress, financial problems and economic constraints, and physical suffering and body-image concerns). Confirmatory factor analyses supported the stability of both models. The CMS demonstrated good internal consistency. The CMS may be a useful tool to better understand contemporary fertility patterns and prepare adequate familial policies and psychosocial interventions in reproductive health care systems. Future studies are needed to corroborate the psychometric properties of the CMS.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • Abell, N., Springer, D. W., & Kamata, A. (2009). Developing and validating rapid assessment instruments. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, F., & Fawcett, J. T. (1975). The value of children: A cross-national study, Vol. 3. Honolulu: East-West Population Institute.

  • Bell, J. F., Bancroft, J., & Phillip, A. (1985). Motivation for parenthood: A factor analytic study of attitudes towards having children. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 16(1), 111–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications and programming (2nd ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Dios, H., & Pérez, C. (2005). Normas para el desarrollo y revisión de estudios instrumentales [Norms for the development and revision of instrumental studies]. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 5(3), 521–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, T., & Sintrovani, P. (2008). Motives for parenthood, psychosocial factors and health in women undergoing IVF. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 26(1), 4–17. doi:10.1080/02646830701691392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C. -P., & Huh, J. (2012). Model modification in structural equation modeling. In R. H., Hoyle (Ed.), Handbook of structural equation modeling, 3rd Ed (pp. 232–246). New York: The Guilford Press.

  • DeVellis, R. F. (2011). Scale development: Theory and applications (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, S., Mokoena, N., Maritz, J., & van der Spuy, Z. (2008). Motives for parenthood among couples attending a level 3 clinic in public health sector in South Africa. Human Reproduction, 23(2), 352–357. doi:10.1093/humrep/dem279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frejka, T., Hoem, J., Toulemon, L., & Sobotka, T. (2008). Childbearing trends and policies in Europe: An overview. Norderstedt: Books on Demand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furr, M. (2011). Scale construction and psychometrics for social and personality psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gauthier, L., Sénecal, C., & Guay, F. (2007). Construction and validation of the motivation to have a child scale (MCS). Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée, 57, 77–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guedes, M., Carvalho, P., Pires, R., & Canavarro, M. C. (2011a). Desenvolvimento de uma escala de avaliação das motivações para a parentalidade [Development of a scale to assess childbearing motivations]. In A. S. Ferreira, A. Verhaeghe, D. R. Silva, L. S. Almeida, R. Lima, & S. Fraga (Eds.), Actas do VIII Congresso Iberoamericano de Avaliação Psicológica/Evaluácion Psicológica (pp. 1454–1466). Lisboa: Sociedade Portuguesa de Psicologia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guedes, M., Carvalho, P., Pires, R., & Canavarro, M. C. (2011b). Uma abordagem qualitativa às motivações positivas e negativas para a parentalidade [A qualitative approach to positive and negative childbearing motivations]. Análise Psicológica, 4(XXIX), 535–551.

  • Janisse, H. C., Barnett, D., & Nies, M. A. (2009). Perceived energy for parenting: A new conceptualization and scale. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18, 312–322. doi:10.1007/s10826-008-9232-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, D. P. (2002). Gender, culture change, and fertility decline in Honduras: An investigation in anthropological demography (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Gainesville: University of Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.). New York: Sage Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langdridge, D., Sheeran, P., & Connolly, K. (2005). Understanding the reasons for parenthood. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 23(2), 121–133. doi:10.1080/02646830500129438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linacre, J. M., & Wright, B. D. (2000). WINSTEPS: Multiple-choice, rating scale, and partial credit Rasch analysis [computer program]. Chicago: MESA Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liss, M., Schiffrin, H. H., Mackintosh, V. H., Miles-McLean, H., & Erchull, M. J. (2012). Development and validation of a quantitative measure of intensive parenting attitudes. Journal of Child and Family Studies,. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9616-y.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. B. (1994). Childbearing motivations, desires and intentions: A theoretical framework. Genetic, Social & Social Psychology, 120(2), 223–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. B. (1995). Childbearing motivation and its measurement. Journal of Biosocial Science, 27, 473–485. doi:10.1017/S0021932000023087.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. B. (2003). The role of nurturant schemas in human reproduction. In J. L. Rodgers & H. P. Kohler (Eds.), The biodemography of human reproduction and fertility (pp. 43–55). Boston: Kluwer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. B. (2009). The reasons people give for having children. In W. B. Miller (Ed.), Why we have children: Building an unified theory of the reproductive mind (pp. 1–19). Aptos, CA: Transnational Family Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L. A., McIntire, S. A., & Lovler, R. L. (2011). Foundations of psychological testing (3rd ed.). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. B., Severy, L., & Pasta, D. (2004). A framework for modeling fertility motivation in couples. Population Studies, 58(2), 193–205. doi:10.1080/0032472042000213712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, M., Rindfuss, R. R., McDonald, P., & Velde, E. (2011). Why do people postpone parenthood? Reasons and social policy incentives. Human Reproduction Update, 17(6), 848–860. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr026.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newton, C. R., Hearn, M. T., Yuzpe, A. A., & Houle, M. (1992). Motives for parenthood and responses to failed in vitro fertilization: Implications for counseling. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, 9(1), 24–31. doi:10.1007/BF01204110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • OCDE. (2011). Doing better families. Paris: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Offer, G. (1994). An interpersonal model of motivation for parenthood: Structure and application (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Raman-Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan University.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Laughlin, E. M., & Anderson, V. N. (2001). Perceptions of parenthood among young adults: Implications for career and family planning. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 29(2), 95–108. doi:10.1080/01926180152026098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pezeshki, M. Z., Zeighami, B., & Miller, W. B. (2005). Measuring the childbearing motivation of couples referred to the Shiraz Health Center for premarital examinations. Journal of Biosocial Science, 37, 37–53. doi:10.1017/S0021932003006485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzo, K. M., Schiffrin, H. H., & Liss, M. (2012). Insight into the parenthood paradox: Mental health outcomes of intensive mothering. Journal of Child and Family Studies,. doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9615-z.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, L., Sobotka, T., Benzten, J. G., & Andersen, A. N. (2012). Demographic and medical consequences of the postponement of parenthood. Human Reproduction Update, 18(1), 29–43. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmr040.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seaver, W., Kirchner, E., Straw, M., & Vegega, M. (1977). Parenthood motivation questionnaire: Scales for measuring motivations for and against parenthood. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 7(3), 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shover, L. R. (2005). Motivation for parenthood after cancer: A review. Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monographs, 34, 2–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simões, M. (1994). Investigações no âmbito da aferição nacional do teste das Matrizes Progressivas de Raven [Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Aferition studies]. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.

  • Stöbel-Richter, Y., Beutel, M. E., Fink, C., & Brähler, E. (2005). The “wish to have a child”, childlessness and infertility in Germany. Human Reproduction, 20(10), 2850–2857. doi:10.1093/humrep/dei121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The Reproductive Health Report. (2011). The state of sexual and reproductive health within the European Union. The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 16(Suppl. 1), 1–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Balen, F., & Trimbos-Kemper, T. C. (1995). Involuntary childless couples: Their desire to have children and their motives. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 16(3), 137–144. doi:10.3109/01674829509024462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, W. C. (2008). Assessment of differential item functioning. Journal of Applied Measurement, 9, 387–408.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wijsen, C. (2002). Timing children at a later age. Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. doi:10.1177/00110000062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study is part of the research project “Transition to parenthood in advanced maternal age: Individual, marital and parental adaptation”, conducted by the Relationships, Development & Health Research Group of the R&D Unit of the Institute of Cognitive Psychology, Vocational and Social Development of the University of Coimbra (PEst-OE/PSI/UI0192/2011). Maryse Guedes, Marco Pereira, Raquel Pires and Paula Carvalho are supported by scholarships from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (SFRH/BD/68912/2010, SFRH/BPD/44435/2008, SFRH/BD/63949/2009 and SFRH/BD/37685/2007, respectively).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra, Rua do Colégio Novo, Apartado 6153, 3001-802, Coimbra, Portugal

    Maryse Guedes, Marco Pereira, Raquel Pires & Maria Cristina Canavarro

  2. Department of Psychology and Education, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal

    Paula Carvalho

Authors
  1. Maryse Guedes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marco Pereira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Raquel Pires
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Paula Carvalho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Maria Cristina Canavarro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maryse Guedes.

Appendix

Appendix

Childbearing Motivations Scale (CMS)

Positive Childbearing Motivations Sub-Scale

  1. 1.

    Strengthening the bond with my partner.

  2. 2.

    Continuing my family name.

  3. 3.

    Listening to the demands of my biological clock.

  4. 4.

    Giving a meaning to my life.

  5. 5.

    Feeling the familial spirit.

  6. 6.

    Fulfilling a moral obligation.

  7. 7.

    Being connected to a child through blood ties.

  8. 8.

    Being socially valued.

  9. 9.

    Conveying my family heritage.

  10. 10.

    Showing that I am responsible.

  11. 11.

    Meeting my family’s expectations.

  12. 12.

    Taking a step forward in the relationship with my partner.

  13. 13.

    Having a source of economic support.

  14. 14.

    Creating a person, a personality.

  15. 15.

    Making real a project that I share with my partner.

  16. 16.

    Realizing my maternal or paternal instinct.

  17. 17.

    Fulfilling my woman’s or man’s role.

  18. 18.

    Creating my own family.

  19. 19.

    Enjoying the experience of pregnancy.

  20. 20.

    Affirming me as an adult.

  21. 21.

    Ensuring my familial lineage.

  22. 22.

    Making real a project of my partner.

  23. 23.

    Ensuring that my partner and I are recognized as a family.

  24. 24.

    Conveying my family’s values.

  25. 25.

    Feeling useful and important for a child.

  26. 26.

    Continuing family relationships.

Negative Childbearing Motivations Sub-Scale

  1. 1.

    Facing the labor of childcare.

  2. 2.

    Having no required qualities (e.g., patience, …) to become a mother or a father.

  3. 3.

    Being afraid of suffering (being afraid that my partner will suffer) complications during birth.

  4. 4.

    Fearing that a child might lead us to separate as a couple.

  5. 5.

    Facing financial sacrifices.

  6. 6.

    Worrying about the future of a child in the current world.

  7. 7.

    Assuming increased expenses with a child.

  8. 8.

    Feeling unprepared to assume the mother’s or father’s role.

  9. 9.

    Dealing with the constant needs of a child.

  10. 10.

    Fearing that my child loses himself/herself in deviant trajectories (e.g., drug dependence, delinquency, …).

  11. 11.

    Being afraid of suffering (being afraid that my partner will suffer) negative changes in my (her) body.

  12. 12.

    Changing our routines as a couple.

  13. 13.

    Being afraid of exposing a child to the social dangers of the world.

  14. 14.

    Losing autonomy as a couple.

  15. 15.

    Having constant worries with a child.

  16. 16.

    Being afraid of suffering (being afraid that my partner will suffer) the physical discomforts (e.g., nausea, …) of pregnancy.

  17. 17.

    Abdicating my financial well-being.

  18. 18.

    Assuming a lifelong responsibility for a child.

  19. 19.

    Being afraid of exposing a child to environmental degradation.

  20. 20.

    Being afraid of facing financial difficulties.

  21. 21.

    Losing proximity with my partner.

Coding

For the positive childbearing motivations sub-scale and the negative childbearing motivations sub-scale, items are presented on a scale ranging from 1 – Not at all to 5 – Completely.

Positive Childbearing Motivations Sub-Scale

Socioeconomic aspects: 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 17, 20, 23.

Personal fulfillment: 3, 4, 7, 14, 16, 18, 19, 25.

Continuity: 2, 5, 9, 21, 24, 26.

The couple relationship: 1, 12, 15, 22.

Negative Childbearing Motivations Sub-Scale

Childrearing burden and immaturity: 1, 2, 8, 10, 15, 18.

Social and ecological worry: 6, 9, 13, 19.

Marital stress: 4, 12, 14, 21.

Financial problems and economical constraints: 5, 7, 17, 20.

Physical suffering and body image worry: 3, 11, 16.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Guedes, M., Pereira, M., Pires, R. et al. Childbearing Motivations Scale: Construction of a New Measure and its Preliminary Psychometric Properties. J Child Fam Stud 24, 180–194 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9824-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9824-0

Keywords

search

Navigation