Abstract
Much of the literature on parent-toddler interactions does not account for the lack of independence in data. This investigation used a theory and method appropriate for examining the moment-to-moment patterns of joint actions between mothers and toddlers during a “do” task. Using contextual action theory to guide a mixture of methods, we observed and described the joint goal-directed series of actions of mothers and their toddlers as well as mothers’ intentions, meanings, and emotions they ascribed to their actions. Additionally, the associations between the patterns of joint mother-toddler actions and children’s negative emotionality were examined. Thirty mothers and their children participated in the study. Data collection included video-recorded activity, video recall interviews, and self-report questionnaires. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data revealed that (a) children were mostly engaged in the task alongside with their mothers’ on-going involvement; (b) mothers attributed a range of meanings to their interactions with their children; and (c) mothers’ perceptions of their toddlers’ dimensions of emotional negativity were associated with the organization of dyads’ joint goal directed actions—both when children were engaged in the task or self-focused.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bates, J. E. (1989). Applications of temperament concepts. In G. A. Kohnstamm, J. E. Bates, & M. K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 321–355). Chichester: Wiley.
Belsky, J., Hsieh, K., & Crnic, K. (1998). Mothering, fathering, and infant negativity as antecedents of boys’ externalizing problems and inhibition at age 3 years: Differential susceptibility to rearing experience? Development and Psychopathology, 10, 301–319.
Berg, C. A., Strough, J., Calderone, K. S., Meegan, S. P., & Sansone, C. (1997). The social context of planning and preventing everyday problems from occurring. In S. L. Friedman & E. K. Scholnick (Eds.), Why, how, and when do we plan? The developmental psychology of planning (pp. 209–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 993–1028). New York: Wiley.
Calkins, S. D. (2007). The emergence of self-regulation: Biological and behavioral control mechanisms supporting toddler competencies. In C. Brownell & C. Kopp (Eds.), Socioemotional development in the toddler years: Transitions and transformations (pp. 261–284). New York: Guilford Press.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 115–159.
Collins, W. A., Maccoby, E. E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2000). Contemporary research on parenting: The case for nature and nurture. American Psychologist, 55, 218–232. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.2.218.
Coplan, R. J., Hastings, P. D., Lagacé-Séguin, D. G., & Moulton, C. E. (2002). Authoritative and authoritarian mothers’ parenting goals, attributions, and emotions across different childrearing contexts. Parenting: Science and Practice, 2, 1–26. doi:10.1207/S15327922PAR0201_1.
Crockenberg, S. (1986). Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers. Child Development, 58, 964–975. doi:10.2307/1130537.
Deci, E. L., Driver, R. E., Hotchkiss, L., Robbins, R. J., & Wilson, I. M. (1993). The relation of mothers’ controlling vocalizations to children’s intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 155, 151–162. doi:10.1006/jecp.1993.1008.
Dix, T., Stewart, A. D., Gershoff, E. T., & Day, W. H. (2007). Autonomy and children’s reactions to being controlled: Evidence that both compliance and defiance may be positive markers in early development. Child Development, 78, 1204–1221. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01061.x.
Eisenberg, N., Qing, Z., Spinrad, T. L., Valiente, C., Fabes, R., & Liew, J. (2005a). Relations among positive parenting, children’s effortful control, and externalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study. Child Development, 76, 1055–1071. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00897.x.
Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S. H., Valiente, C., et al. (2005b). The relations of problem behavior status to children’s negative emotionality, and impulsivity: Concurrent relations and prediction of change. Developmental Psychology, 41, 193–211. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.193.
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & Van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.33.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
Fabes, R. A., Leonard, S. A., Kupanoff, K., & Martin, C. L. (2001). Parental coping with children’s negative emotions: Relations with children’s emotional and social responding. Child Development, 72, 907–920. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00323.
Forehand, R., & Wierson, M. (1993). The role of developmental factors in planning behavioral interventions for children: Disruptive behavior as an example. Behavior Therapy, 24, 117–141.
Forman, D. (2007). Autonomy, compliance, and internalization. In C. A. Brownell & C. B. Kopp (Eds.), Socioemotional development in the toddler years: Transitions and transformations (pp. 261–284). New York: Guilford Press.
Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, A. H., Plomin, R., Rothbart, M. K., Thomas, A., Chess, S., et al. (1987). Rountable: What is temperament? Four approaches. Child Development, 58, 505–529.
Goodnow, J. J. (1994). Acceptable disagreement across generations. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 66, 51–64. doi:10.1002/cd.23219946606.
Grunzeweig, N., Stack, D. M., Serbin, L. A., Ledingham, J., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2009). Effects of maternal childhood aggression and social withdrawal on maternal request strategies and child compliance and noncompliance. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 724–737. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2009.02.001.
Harach, L. D., & Kuczynski, L. (2005). Construction and maintenance of parent-child relationships: Bidirectional contributions from the perspective of parents. Infant and Child Development, 14, 327–343.
Hastings, P. D., & Grusec, J. E. (1998). Parenting goals as organizers of responses to parent–child disagreement. Developmental Psychology, 34, 465–479. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.3.465.
Herrera, C., & Dunn, J. (1997). Early experiences with family conflict: Implications for arguments with a close friend. Developmental Psychology, 33, 869–881.
Hinde, R. A. (1989). Temperament as an intervening variable. In G. A. Kohnstamm, J. E. Bates, & M. K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 27–33). Oxford, England: Wiley.
Hinde, R. A., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1988). Interpersonal relationships and child development. Developmental Review, 7, 1–21.
Holden, G. W., & Hawk, C. K. (2003). Meta-parenting in the journey of child-rearing: A cognitive mechanism for change. In L. Kuczynski (Ed.), Handbook of dynamics in parent-child relations (pp. 189–210). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hsieh, H., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15, 1277–1288. doi:10.1177/1049732305276687.
Ingoldsby, E. M., Shaw, D. S., & Garcia, M. M. (2001). Intrafamily conflict in relation to boys’ adjustment at school. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 35–52.
Karreman, A., de Haas, S., van Tuijl, C., van Aken, M. A. G., & Deković, M. (2010). Relations among temperament, parenting and problem behavior in young children. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 39–49. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.10.008.
Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Cook, W. L. (2006). Dyadic data analysis. New York: Guilford Press.
Klimes-Dougan, B., & Kopp, C. B. (1999). Children’s conflict tactics with mothers: A longitudinal investigation of the toddler and preschool years. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 45, 226–241.
Kochanska, G. (1995). Children’s temperament, mothers’ discipline, and security of attachment: Multiple pathways to emerging internalization. Child Development, 66, 597–615. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00892.x.
Kochanska, G. (2002). Committed compliance, moral self, and internalization: A mediational model. Development Psychology, 38, 339–351. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.3.339.
Kochanska, G., & Aksan, H. (1995). Mother–child mutually positive affect, the quality of child compliance to requests and prohibitions, and maternal control as correlates of early internalization. Child Development, 66, 236–254. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00868.x.
Kochanska, G., Coy, K. C., & Murray, K. (2001). The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1091–1111. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00336.
Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199–214. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199.
Kuczynski, L., Kochanska, G., Radke-Yarrow, M., & Girnius-Brown, O. (1987). A developmental interpretation of young children’s noncompliance. Developmental Psychology, 23, 799–806. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.23.6.799.
Laible, D., Panfile, T., & Makeriev, D. (2008). The quality and frequency of mother-toddler conflict: Links with attachment and temperament. Child Development, 79, 426–443. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01134.x.
Laible, D., & Thompson, R. A. (2002). Mother–child conflict in the toddler years: Lessons in emotion, morality, and relationships. Child Development, 73, 1187–1203. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00466.
Lee, C. L., & Bates, J. E. (1985). Mother-child interaction at two years and perceived difficult temperament. Child Development, 56, 1314–1325.
Lewis, M. D., Lamey, A. V., & Douglas, L. (1999). A new dynamic systems method for the analysis of early socioemotional development. Developmental Science, 2, 457–475. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00090.
Lindsey, E., Cremeens, P., & Caldera, Y. (2010). Gender differences in mother-toddler and father-toddler verbal initiations and responses during a caregiving and play context. Sex Roles, 63, 399–411. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9803-5.
Lollis, S. (2003). Conceptualizing the influence of the past and the future in present parent-child relationships. In L. Kuczynski (Ed.), Handbook of dynamics in parent-child relations (pp. 67–87). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Lollis, S., & Kuczynski, L. (1997). Beyond one hand clapping: Seeing bidirectionality in parent-child relations. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4, 441–461. doi:10.1177/0265407597144002.
Martini, T. S., Root, C. A., & Jenkins, J. M. (2004). Low and middle income mothers’ regulation of negative emotion: Effects of children’s temperament and situational emotional responses. Social Development, 13, 515–530. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00281.x.
McElwain, N. L., Holland, A. S., Engle, J. M., & Wong, M. S. (2012). Child anger proneness moderates associations between child–mother attachment security and child behavior with mothers at 33 months. Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 76–86. doi:10.1037/a0026454.
O’Leary, S. G., Smith Slep, A. M., & Reid, M. J. (1999). A longitudinal study of mothers’ overreactive discipline and toddlers’ externalizing behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 331–341.
Oliphant, A., & Kuczynski, L. (2011). Mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of mutuality in middle childhood: The domain of intimacy. Journal of Family Issues, 32, 1104–1124. doi:10.1177/0192513X11402946.
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family processes. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Paulussen-Hoogeboom, M. C., Stams, G. J. J. M., Hermanns, J. M. A., & Peetsma, T. T. D. (2007). Child negative emotionality and parenting from infancy to preschool: A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 43, 438–453. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.438.
Pope, C., Ziebland, S., & Mays, N. (2000). Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data. British Medical Journal, 320, 114–116. doi:10.1136/bmj.320.7227.114.
Prior, M. (1992). Temperament: A review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 249–279.
Putnam, S. P., Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2006). Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire. Infant Behaviour and Development, 29, 386–401. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2006.01.004.
Putnman, S. P., Sanson, A. V., & Rothbart, M. K. (2002). Child temperament and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Children and parenting: Vol. 1 (2nd ed., pp. 255–279). New Jersey: Routledge.
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vo. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 3. Social, emotional and personality development (5 ed., pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley.
Rothbart, M. K., Ellis, L. K., & Posner, M. I. (2004). Temperament and self regulation. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research theory and applications (pp. 283–300). New York: Guilford Press.
Rubin, K. H., Hastings, P., Chen, X., Stewart, S., & McNichol, K. (1998). Intrapersonal and maternal correlates of aggression, conflict, and externalizing problems in toddlers. Child Development, 69, 1614–1629. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06180.x.
Rubin, K. H., Nelson, L. J., Hastings, P., & Asendorpf, J. (1999). Transaction between parents’ perceptions of their children’s shyness and their parenting styles. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23, 937–957. doi:10.1080/016502599383612.
Russell, A., Pettit, G. S., & Mize, J. (1998). Horizontal qualities in parent-child relationships: Parallels with and possible consequences for children’s peer relationships. Developmental Review, 18, 313–352. doi:10.1006/drev.1997.0466.
Sameroff, A. J. (2009). The transactional model. In A. J. Sameroff (Ed.), The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each other (pp. 3–21). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Sanson, A., Hemphill, S. A., & Smart, D. (2004). Connections between temperament and social development: A review. Social Development, 13, 142–170. doi:10.1046/j.1467-9507.2004.00261.x.
Scaramella, V. H., & Leve, L. S. (2004). Clarifying parent-child reciprocities during early childhood: The early childhood coercion model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7, 89–107. doi:10.1023/B:CCFP.0000030287.13160.a3.
Shiner, S., & Caspi, A. (2003). Personality differences in childhood and adolescence: Measurement, development, and consequences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 2–32. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00101.
Snyder, J., Edwards, P., McGraw, K., Kilsgore, K., & Holton, A. (1994). Escalation and reinforcement in mother–child conflict: Social processes associated with the development of physical aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 305–321. doi:10.1017/S0954579400004600.
Strassberg, Z., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Spanking in the home and children’s subsequent aggression toward kindergarten peers. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 445–461.
Thompson, L., & Walker, A. J. (1982). The dyad as unit of analysis: Conceptual and methodological issues. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 44, 889–900.
Valsiner, J., Branco, A. U., & Melo Dantas, C. (1997). Co-construction of human development: Heterogeneity within parental belief orientations. In J. E. Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Handbook of parenting and the transmission of values (pp. 283–304). New York: Wiley.
van Aken, C., Junger, M., Verhoeven, M., van Aken, M. A. G., & Deković, M. (2007). The interactive effects of temperament and maternal parenting on toddlers’ externalizing behaviours. Infant and Child Development, 16, 553–572. doi:10.1002/icd.529.
Volling, B. L., Blandon, A. Y., & Gorvine, B. J. (2006). Maternal and paternal gentle guidance and young children’s compliance from a within-family perspective. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 514–525. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.3.514.
Wilkinson, L., & Task Force on Statistical Inference. (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54, 594–604.
Young, R. A., Valach, L., & Collin, A. (2002). A contextual explanation of career. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (4th ed., pp. 206–250). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Young, R. A., Valach, L., & Domene, J. F. (2005). The action-project method in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 215–223.
Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescent relations with mother, father, and friends. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zumbo, B. D., & Hubley, A. M. (1998). A note on misconceptions concerning prospective and retrospective power. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series D (The Statistician), 47, 385–388.
Acknowledgments
Preparation of this manuscript was supported in part by a Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research (MSFHR) and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) Postdoctoral Research Fellowship to Anat Zaidman-Zait. We wish to express gratitude to the participating families for their time and cooperation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zaidman-Zait, A., Marshall, S.K., Young, R.A. et al. Beyond Compliance: Mother–Child Joint Action During a “Do” Task. J Child Fam Stud 23, 1034–1049 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9760-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9760-z